| ASTAXANTHIN BENEFITS zhion@zhion.com Feb 02, 2008 |
WHAT IS ASTAXANTHIN? WHY IT IS SO POPULAR?
Astaxanthin, a naturally occurring carotenoid pigment, is a powerful
biological antioxidant. Astaxanthin exhibits strong free radical
scavenging activity and protects against lipid peroxidation and
oxidative damage of LDL-cholesterol, cell membranes, cells, and
tissues. Consequently, astaxanthin has important applications in the
Nutraceuticals, Cosmetics, Food and Feed industries.
For last 2 decades. more than 300 articles and patents have been
published regarding astaxanthin. Astaxanthin is a small Lipid soluble
molecule that can cross the blood brain and retina barriers easily.
Because of its antioxidant activities and blood brain/retina
permeability, astaxanthin was found to have benefits on various
health conditions including inflammation, diabetics, certain
cardiovascular, vision and CNS conditions.
WHERE CAN WE FIND ASTAXANTHIN?
Astaxanthin is a naturally occurring molecule and the most abundant
carotenoid in the marine world. Astaxanthin can be found in many of
seafood such as salmon, trout, seabream and shrimps. Astaxanthin
cannot be synthesized by animals and must be provided in the diet.
The main or richest commercial source for natural astaxanthin is
Haematococcus pluvialis microalgae. Most manufacturers have the
advanced biotechnology process to cultivate large amount of
enriched algae cells without the disadvantages of open pond algae
systems such as problems associated with contaminations and
salinity. In addition, the Haematococcus microalgae is cultivated in
ideal environmental conditions using the natural sun light as the
energy source all year round.
WHAT RESEARCHES HAVE BEEN DONE?
ASTAXANTHIN IS A POTENT ANTIOXIDANT, IN-VITRO STUDIES.
When the conjugated keto-carotenoids, astaxanthin was added to
rat liver microsomes undergoing radical-initiated lipid peroxidation
under air, astaxanthin is as effective as alpha-tocopherol in inhibiting
this process. This contrasts with the effect of beta-carotene, which is
a much less potent antioxidant when added in this system, without
the addition of other antioxidants. [2]
In another study, researchers demonstrated the inhibitory effect of
beta-carotene and astaxanthin on photosensitized oxidation of
phospholipid bilayers. They exposed large unilamellar liposomes
comprising of egg yolk phosphatidylcholine (PC) was exposed to
photoirradiation in the presence of methylene blue (water-soluble
photosensitizer) or 12-(1-pyrene)dodecanoic acid (P-12, lipid-soluble
photosensitizer). Without sensitizers, astaxanthin decreased much
slower than beta-carotene and other hydrocarbon carotenoids
(lycopene, alpha-carotene). Astaxanthin lasted longer than
beta-carotene even in the presence of methylene blue or P-12.
Decrease of astaxanthin was also much slower than that of
beta-carotene when egg yolk PC was replaced by dimyristoyl PC.
However, inhibitory effect of astaxanthin was lower than
beta-carotene in the case of P-12 sensitized photooxidation. [4]
Another early study showed that astaxanthin (10 nM) was able to
protect against UVA (intensity of 5.6 mW/cm2 for 4 h)-induced
oxidative stress in rat kidney fibroblasts (NRK). [7]
ASTAXANTHIN IS AN IMMUNOMODULATOR, IN ANIMAL STUDIES.
Studies have shown that astaxanthin enhances in vitro antibody
production to sheep red blood cells in normal B6 mice. [3]
When the actions of carotenoids were tested in normal strains of
mice, researchers found that astaxanthin enhanced in vitro antibody
production to T cell-dependent antigen. And, astaxanthin exerted
maximum enhancing actions when it was present at the initial period
of antigen priming. [3]
ASTAXANTHIN MAY OFFER BENEFIT OF LIVER PROTECTION
Astaxanthin protects liver damage induced by CCl4 by inhibiting lipid
peroxidation and stimulating the cellular antioxidant system.
Researchers studied if astaxanthin could have protective effects in
the CCl4-treated rat liver by activating the antioxidant system. They
found that astaxanthin could subside the increased
glutamate-oxalacetate transaminase (GOT) and glutamate-pyruvate
transaminase (GTP) activities in response to carbon tetrachloride
(CCl4), while causing an increase in glutathione (GSH) levels and
superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities in the CCl4-treated rat liver.
[9]
ASTAXANTHIN MAY BENEFIT RATS WITH DIABETES
Oxidative stress induced by hyperglycemia possibly causes the
dysfunction of pancreatic beta-cells and various forms of tissue
damage in patients with diabetes mellitus. Astaxanthin, a carotenoid
of marine microalgae, is reported as a strong anti-oxidant inhibiting
lipid peroxidation and scavenging reactive oxygen species.
Researchers have examined whether astaxanthin can elicit beneficial
effects on the progressive destruction of pancreatic beta-cells in
db/db mice--a well-known obese model of type 2 diabetes. They
used diabetic C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice and db/m for the control.
Astaxanthin treatment was started at 6 weeks of age and its effects
were evaluated at 10, 14, and 18 weeks of age by non-fasting blood
glucose levels, intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test including insulin
secretion, and beta-cell histology. They found that the non-fasting
blood glucose level in db/db mice was significantly higher than that
of db/m mice, and the higher level of blood glucose in db/db mice
decreased after treatment with astaxanthin. [10]
ASTAXANTHIN MAY HAVE BENEFITS ON CARDIAC PROTECTION
A study of mice has shown that astaxanthin attenuated
exercise-induced damage in mouse skeletal muscle and heart,
including an associated neutrophil infiltration that induces further
damage. In the study, the researchers required the mice to perform
vigorous exercise and they found the protection of astaxanthin on
the cardiac muscle. [11]
ASTAXANTHIN MAY INHBITS LDL OXIDATION AND LOWER THE RISK OF
ATHEROSLEROSIS.
A study has demonstrated that astaxanthin significantly prolonged
the LDL oxidation lag time (31.5, 45.4, 65.0 min) compared with the
control (19.9 min) in a dose-proportionality manner. In the same
study, the researchers dosed 24 volunteers with astaxanthin at
doses of 1.8, 3.6,14.4 and 21.6 mg per day for 14 days. They also
found the a longer LDL oxidation lag time. [12]
ASTAXANTHIN MAY BENEFIT MALE INFERTILITY
A double blind, randomized trial of 30 men suffered from infertility
showed that astaxanthin increased the sperm linear velocity and
decreased reactive oxygen species and Inhibin B. [13]
ASTAXANTHIN HAS ANTI-CANCER ACTIVITIES IN ANIMAL STUDIES.
In a study, mice were given 250 p.p.m. OH-BBN in drinking water for
20 weeks then, water containing astaxanthin. Researches found
astaxanthin administration after OH-BBN exposure significantly
reduced the incidence of bladder cancer (transitional cell carcinoma).
Treatment with astaxanthin also decreased the number/nucleus of
silver-stained nucleolar organizer region proteins, an index of cell
proliferation. Astaxanthin may suppress cell proliferation. [5]
In another study, researchers induced oral carcinogenesis in male
F344 rats with 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide (4-NQO). Then, they fed the
animals with 100 ppm astaxanthin during the initiation or
post-initiation phase of 4-NQO-induced oral carcinogenesis. They
found the incidences of preneoplastic lesions and neoplasms in the
oral cavity of rats fed with astaxanthin were significantly smaller
than those without astaxanthin treatment. In particular, no oral
neoplasms developed in rats fed with astaxanthin during the 4-NQO
exposure. [6]
One early study demonstrated the anticancer activities of
astaxanthin against the growth of mammary tumors were studied in
female eight-wk-old BALB/c mice. Researchers fed the mice with a
synthetic diet containing 0, 0.1 or 0.4% astaxanthin. After 3 weeks,
they inoculated all mice with 1 x 10(6) WAZ-2T tumor cells into the
mammary fat pad. They killed all animals on 45 d after inoculation
with the tumor cells and they found that astaxanthin decreased
mammary tumor volume in a dose-dependent fashion. [8]
Astaxanthin also demonstrated 98% inhibition of 5alpha-reductase
at 300 microg/mL in vitro. Inhibition of 5alpha-reductase has been
reported to decrease the symptoms of benign prostate hyperplasia
(BPH) and possibly inhibit or help treat prostate cancer. [14]
ASTAXANTHIN BENEFITS RAT SUFFERED FROM ULCERATION
Researchers isolated astaxanthin from Xanthophyllomyces
dendrorhous. And then, they supplemented rats suffered from
naproxen-induced gastric antral ulceration with astaxanthin. The oral
administration of astaxanthin (1, 5, and 25 mg/kg of body weight)
showed a significant protection against naproxen (80 mg/kg of body
weight)-induced gastric antral ulcer and inhibited elevation of the
lipid peroxide level in gastric mucosa. They also found that
pretreatment of astaxanthin resulted in a significant increase in the
activities of radical scavenging enzymes such as superoxide
dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase. The acute gastric
mucosal lesion induced by naproxen nearly disappeared after the
pretreatment of astaxanthin. [15]
ASTAXANTHIN MAY BENEFIT ANIMALS SUFFERED FROM HIGH BLOOD
PRESSURE
A study of spontaneously hypertensive rats has shown the
antihypertensive effects of astaxanthin. Oral administration of
astaxanthin for 14 days induced a significant reduction in the arterial
blood pressure. The long-term administration of astaxanthin (50
mg/kg) for 5 weeks in stroke prone rats induced a significant
reduction in the blood pressure. [16]
THIS ARTICLE IS FOR YOUR INFORMATION ONLY. MOST OF THE STUDIES
HAVE BEEN DONE IN ANIMALS, IT IS NOT SURE IF THE DATA CAN BE
APPLIED TO HUMAN BEING. IF YOU HAVE ANY QUESTION, YOU SHOULD
CONSULT WITH YOUR DOCTOR. ALL RIGHT RESERVED 2008 zhion.
REFERENCE [1] Lorenz RT and Cysewski GR Commercial potential for Haematococcus
microalgae as a natural source of astaxanthin. Trends Biotechnol. 2000 Apr;18(4):160-7. [2]
Palozza P and Krinsky NI Astaxanthin and canthaxanthin are potent antioxidants in a
membrane model. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1992 Sep;297(2):291-5. [3] Jyonouchi H, Zhang
L Tomita Y Studies of immunomodulating actions of carotenoids. II. Astaxanthin enhances
in vitro antibody production to T-dependent antigens without facilitating polyclonal B-cell
activation. Nutr Cancer. 1993;19(3):269-80. [4] Oshima S et al, Inhibitory effect of
beta-carotene and astaxanthin on photosensitized oxidation of phospholipid bilayers. J Nutr
Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 1993 Dec;39(6):607-15. [5] Tanaka T et al, Chemoprevention of
mouse urinary bladder carcinogenesis by the naturally occurring carotenoid astaxanthin.
Carcinogenesis. 1994 Jan;15(1):15-9. [6] Tanaka T et al, Chemoprevention of rat oral
carcinogenesis by naturally occurring xanthophylls, astaxanthin and canthaxanthin. Cancer
Res. 1995 Sep 15;55(18):4059-64. [7] O'Connor I and O'Brien N Modulation of UVA
light-induced oxidative stress by beta-carotene, lutein and astaxanthin in cultured fibroblasts.
J Dermatol Sci. 1998 Mar;16(3):226-30. [8] Chew BP et al, A comparison of the anticancer
activities of dietary beta-carotene, canthaxanthin and astaxanthin in mice in vivo.
Anticancer Res. 1999 May-Jun;19(3A):1849-53. [9] Kang JO et al, Effect of astaxanthin on
the hepatotoxicity, lipid peroxidation and antioxidative enzymes in the liver of CCl4-treated
rats. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol. 2001 Mar;23(2):79-84. [10] Uchiyama K et al,
Astaxanthin protects beta-cells against glucose toxicity in diabetic db/db mice. Redox Rep.
2002;7(5):290-3. [11] Aoi W et al, Astaxanthin limits exercise-induced skeletal and cardiac
muscle damage in mice. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2003 Feb;5(1):139-44. [12] Iwamoto T et
al, Inhibition of low-density lipoprotein oxidation by astaxanthin. J Atheroscler Thromb.
2000;7(4):216-22. [13] Comhaire FH et al, Combined conventional/antioxidant "Astaxanthin"
treatment for male infertility: a double blind, randomized trial. Asian J Androl. 2005
Sep;7(3):257-62. [14] Anderson ML A preliminary investigation of the enzymatic inhibition
of 5alpha-reduction and growth of prostatic carcinoma cell line LNCap-FGC by natural
astaxanthin and Saw Palmetto lipid extract in vitro. J Herb Pharmacother. 2005;5(1):17-26.
[15] Kim JH et al, Protective effect of astaxanthin on naproxen-induced gastric antral
ulceration in rats. Eur J Pharmacol. 2005 May 2;514(1):53-9. Epub 2005 Apr 20. [16]
Hussein G et al, Antihypertensive and neuroprotective effects of astaxanthin in experimental
animals. Biol Pharm Bull. 2005 Jan;28(1):47-52.
Astaxanthin, a naturally occurring carotenoid pigment, is a powerful
biological antioxidant. Astaxanthin exhibits strong free radical
scavenging activity and protects against lipid peroxidation and
oxidative damage of LDL-cholesterol, cell membranes, cells, and
tissues. Consequently, astaxanthin has important applications in the
Nutraceuticals, Cosmetics, Food and Feed industries.
For last 2 decades. more than 300 articles and patents have been
published regarding astaxanthin. Astaxanthin is a small Lipid soluble
molecule that can cross the blood brain and retina barriers easily.
Because of its antioxidant activities and blood brain/retina
permeability, astaxanthin was found to have benefits on various
health conditions including inflammation, diabetics, certain
cardiovascular, vision and CNS conditions.
WHERE CAN WE FIND ASTAXANTHIN?
Astaxanthin is a naturally occurring molecule and the most abundant
carotenoid in the marine world. Astaxanthin can be found in many of
seafood such as salmon, trout, seabream and shrimps. Astaxanthin
cannot be synthesized by animals and must be provided in the diet.
The main or richest commercial source for natural astaxanthin is
Haematococcus pluvialis microalgae. Most manufacturers have the
advanced biotechnology process to cultivate large amount of
enriched algae cells without the disadvantages of open pond algae
systems such as problems associated with contaminations and
salinity. In addition, the Haematococcus microalgae is cultivated in
ideal environmental conditions using the natural sun light as the
energy source all year round.
WHAT RESEARCHES HAVE BEEN DONE?
ASTAXANTHIN IS A POTENT ANTIOXIDANT, IN-VITRO STUDIES.
When the conjugated keto-carotenoids, astaxanthin was added to
rat liver microsomes undergoing radical-initiated lipid peroxidation
under air, astaxanthin is as effective as alpha-tocopherol in inhibiting
this process. This contrasts with the effect of beta-carotene, which is
a much less potent antioxidant when added in this system, without
the addition of other antioxidants. [2]
In another study, researchers demonstrated the inhibitory effect of
beta-carotene and astaxanthin on photosensitized oxidation of
phospholipid bilayers. They exposed large unilamellar liposomes
comprising of egg yolk phosphatidylcholine (PC) was exposed to
photoirradiation in the presence of methylene blue (water-soluble
photosensitizer) or 12-(1-pyrene)dodecanoic acid (P-12, lipid-soluble
photosensitizer). Without sensitizers, astaxanthin decreased much
slower than beta-carotene and other hydrocarbon carotenoids
(lycopene, alpha-carotene). Astaxanthin lasted longer than
beta-carotene even in the presence of methylene blue or P-12.
Decrease of astaxanthin was also much slower than that of
beta-carotene when egg yolk PC was replaced by dimyristoyl PC.
However, inhibitory effect of astaxanthin was lower than
beta-carotene in the case of P-12 sensitized photooxidation. [4]
Another early study showed that astaxanthin (10 nM) was able to
protect against UVA (intensity of 5.6 mW/cm2 for 4 h)-induced
oxidative stress in rat kidney fibroblasts (NRK). [7]
ASTAXANTHIN IS AN IMMUNOMODULATOR, IN ANIMAL STUDIES.
Studies have shown that astaxanthin enhances in vitro antibody
production to sheep red blood cells in normal B6 mice. [3]
When the actions of carotenoids were tested in normal strains of
mice, researchers found that astaxanthin enhanced in vitro antibody
production to T cell-dependent antigen. And, astaxanthin exerted
maximum enhancing actions when it was present at the initial period
of antigen priming. [3]
ASTAXANTHIN MAY OFFER BENEFIT OF LIVER PROTECTION
Astaxanthin protects liver damage induced by CCl4 by inhibiting lipid
peroxidation and stimulating the cellular antioxidant system.
Researchers studied if astaxanthin could have protective effects in
the CCl4-treated rat liver by activating the antioxidant system. They
found that astaxanthin could subside the increased
glutamate-oxalacetate transaminase (GOT) and glutamate-pyruvate
transaminase (GTP) activities in response to carbon tetrachloride
(CCl4), while causing an increase in glutathione (GSH) levels and
superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities in the CCl4-treated rat liver.
[9]
ASTAXANTHIN MAY BENEFIT RATS WITH DIABETES
Oxidative stress induced by hyperglycemia possibly causes the
dysfunction of pancreatic beta-cells and various forms of tissue
damage in patients with diabetes mellitus. Astaxanthin, a carotenoid
of marine microalgae, is reported as a strong anti-oxidant inhibiting
lipid peroxidation and scavenging reactive oxygen species.
Researchers have examined whether astaxanthin can elicit beneficial
effects on the progressive destruction of pancreatic beta-cells in
db/db mice--a well-known obese model of type 2 diabetes. They
used diabetic C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice and db/m for the control.
Astaxanthin treatment was started at 6 weeks of age and its effects
were evaluated at 10, 14, and 18 weeks of age by non-fasting blood
glucose levels, intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test including insulin
secretion, and beta-cell histology. They found that the non-fasting
blood glucose level in db/db mice was significantly higher than that
of db/m mice, and the higher level of blood glucose in db/db mice
decreased after treatment with astaxanthin. [10]
ASTAXANTHIN MAY HAVE BENEFITS ON CARDIAC PROTECTION
A study of mice has shown that astaxanthin attenuated
exercise-induced damage in mouse skeletal muscle and heart,
including an associated neutrophil infiltration that induces further
damage. In the study, the researchers required the mice to perform
vigorous exercise and they found the protection of astaxanthin on
the cardiac muscle. [11]
ASTAXANTHIN MAY INHBITS LDL OXIDATION AND LOWER THE RISK OF
ATHEROSLEROSIS.
A study has demonstrated that astaxanthin significantly prolonged
the LDL oxidation lag time (31.5, 45.4, 65.0 min) compared with the
control (19.9 min) in a dose-proportionality manner. In the same
study, the researchers dosed 24 volunteers with astaxanthin at
doses of 1.8, 3.6,14.4 and 21.6 mg per day for 14 days. They also
found the a longer LDL oxidation lag time. [12]
ASTAXANTHIN MAY BENEFIT MALE INFERTILITY
A double blind, randomized trial of 30 men suffered from infertility
showed that astaxanthin increased the sperm linear velocity and
decreased reactive oxygen species and Inhibin B. [13]
ASTAXANTHIN HAS ANTI-CANCER ACTIVITIES IN ANIMAL STUDIES.
In a study, mice were given 250 p.p.m. OH-BBN in drinking water for
20 weeks then, water containing astaxanthin. Researches found
astaxanthin administration after OH-BBN exposure significantly
reduced the incidence of bladder cancer (transitional cell carcinoma).
Treatment with astaxanthin also decreased the number/nucleus of
silver-stained nucleolar organizer region proteins, an index of cell
proliferation. Astaxanthin may suppress cell proliferation. [5]
In another study, researchers induced oral carcinogenesis in male
F344 rats with 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide (4-NQO). Then, they fed the
animals with 100 ppm astaxanthin during the initiation or
post-initiation phase of 4-NQO-induced oral carcinogenesis. They
found the incidences of preneoplastic lesions and neoplasms in the
oral cavity of rats fed with astaxanthin were significantly smaller
than those without astaxanthin treatment. In particular, no oral
neoplasms developed in rats fed with astaxanthin during the 4-NQO
exposure. [6]
One early study demonstrated the anticancer activities of
astaxanthin against the growth of mammary tumors were studied in
female eight-wk-old BALB/c mice. Researchers fed the mice with a
synthetic diet containing 0, 0.1 or 0.4% astaxanthin. After 3 weeks,
they inoculated all mice with 1 x 10(6) WAZ-2T tumor cells into the
mammary fat pad. They killed all animals on 45 d after inoculation
with the tumor cells and they found that astaxanthin decreased
mammary tumor volume in a dose-dependent fashion. [8]
Astaxanthin also demonstrated 98% inhibition of 5alpha-reductase
at 300 microg/mL in vitro. Inhibition of 5alpha-reductase has been
reported to decrease the symptoms of benign prostate hyperplasia
(BPH) and possibly inhibit or help treat prostate cancer. [14]
ASTAXANTHIN BENEFITS RAT SUFFERED FROM ULCERATION
Researchers isolated astaxanthin from Xanthophyllomyces
dendrorhous. And then, they supplemented rats suffered from
naproxen-induced gastric antral ulceration with astaxanthin. The oral
administration of astaxanthin (1, 5, and 25 mg/kg of body weight)
showed a significant protection against naproxen (80 mg/kg of body
weight)-induced gastric antral ulcer and inhibited elevation of the
lipid peroxide level in gastric mucosa. They also found that
pretreatment of astaxanthin resulted in a significant increase in the
activities of radical scavenging enzymes such as superoxide
dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase. The acute gastric
mucosal lesion induced by naproxen nearly disappeared after the
pretreatment of astaxanthin. [15]
ASTAXANTHIN MAY BENEFIT ANIMALS SUFFERED FROM HIGH BLOOD
PRESSURE
A study of spontaneously hypertensive rats has shown the
antihypertensive effects of astaxanthin. Oral administration of
astaxanthin for 14 days induced a significant reduction in the arterial
blood pressure. The long-term administration of astaxanthin (50
mg/kg) for 5 weeks in stroke prone rats induced a significant
reduction in the blood pressure. [16]
THIS ARTICLE IS FOR YOUR INFORMATION ONLY. MOST OF THE STUDIES
HAVE BEEN DONE IN ANIMALS, IT IS NOT SURE IF THE DATA CAN BE
APPLIED TO HUMAN BEING. IF YOU HAVE ANY QUESTION, YOU SHOULD
CONSULT WITH YOUR DOCTOR. ALL RIGHT RESERVED 2008 zhion.
REFERENCE [1] Lorenz RT and Cysewski GR Commercial potential for Haematococcus
microalgae as a natural source of astaxanthin. Trends Biotechnol. 2000 Apr;18(4):160-7. [2]
Palozza P and Krinsky NI Astaxanthin and canthaxanthin are potent antioxidants in a
membrane model. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1992 Sep;297(2):291-5. [3] Jyonouchi H, Zhang
L Tomita Y Studies of immunomodulating actions of carotenoids. II. Astaxanthin enhances
in vitro antibody production to T-dependent antigens without facilitating polyclonal B-cell
activation. Nutr Cancer. 1993;19(3):269-80. [4] Oshima S et al, Inhibitory effect of
beta-carotene and astaxanthin on photosensitized oxidation of phospholipid bilayers. J Nutr
Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 1993 Dec;39(6):607-15. [5] Tanaka T et al, Chemoprevention of
mouse urinary bladder carcinogenesis by the naturally occurring carotenoid astaxanthin.
Carcinogenesis. 1994 Jan;15(1):15-9. [6] Tanaka T et al, Chemoprevention of rat oral
carcinogenesis by naturally occurring xanthophylls, astaxanthin and canthaxanthin. Cancer
Res. 1995 Sep 15;55(18):4059-64. [7] O'Connor I and O'Brien N Modulation of UVA
light-induced oxidative stress by beta-carotene, lutein and astaxanthin in cultured fibroblasts.
J Dermatol Sci. 1998 Mar;16(3):226-30. [8] Chew BP et al, A comparison of the anticancer
activities of dietary beta-carotene, canthaxanthin and astaxanthin in mice in vivo.
Anticancer Res. 1999 May-Jun;19(3A):1849-53. [9] Kang JO et al, Effect of astaxanthin on
the hepatotoxicity, lipid peroxidation and antioxidative enzymes in the liver of CCl4-treated
rats. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol. 2001 Mar;23(2):79-84. [10] Uchiyama K et al,
Astaxanthin protects beta-cells against glucose toxicity in diabetic db/db mice. Redox Rep.
2002;7(5):290-3. [11] Aoi W et al, Astaxanthin limits exercise-induced skeletal and cardiac
muscle damage in mice. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2003 Feb;5(1):139-44. [12] Iwamoto T et
al, Inhibition of low-density lipoprotein oxidation by astaxanthin. J Atheroscler Thromb.
2000;7(4):216-22. [13] Comhaire FH et al, Combined conventional/antioxidant "Astaxanthin"
treatment for male infertility: a double blind, randomized trial. Asian J Androl. 2005
Sep;7(3):257-62. [14] Anderson ML A preliminary investigation of the enzymatic inhibition
of 5alpha-reduction and growth of prostatic carcinoma cell line LNCap-FGC by natural
astaxanthin and Saw Palmetto lipid extract in vitro. J Herb Pharmacother. 2005;5(1):17-26.
[15] Kim JH et al, Protective effect of astaxanthin on naproxen-induced gastric antral
ulceration in rats. Eur J Pharmacol. 2005 May 2;514(1):53-9. Epub 2005 Apr 20. [16]
Hussein G et al, Antihypertensive and neuroprotective effects of astaxanthin in experimental
animals. Biol Pharm Bull. 2005 Jan;28(1):47-52.
