Borage Oil Health
Benefits and Side Effects
Benefits and Side Effects
Borage (Borago officinalis)
Borage is a plant with blue, star-shaped flowers originated from Europe and
North Africa and now you can find this plant in America. [1] The oil extracted
from its seeds contain gamma linolenic acid (GLA), a fatty acid that the body
converts to a hormone-like substance called prostaglandin E1 (PGE1). PGE1
has anti-inflammatory properties and may have benefits of blood thinning
and blood vessel dilation.
Diseases such as premenstrual syndrome,9 diabetes,10 scleroderma,11
SjogrenÂ’s syndrome,12 tardive dyskinesia,13 eczema , aging, high
saturated fat or hydrogenated oil levels can interfere the conversion of
linolenic acid into PGE1. [9-14] Some manufacturers and researchers believe
that supplementation of GLA can solve these conversion problems. [2]
Health Benefits of Borage Seed Oil Supplements
Borage oil may benefit people suffered from rheumatoid arthritis.
Recent double blind studies have shown some benefit of borage oil in
treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with negligible side effects. [35,37] Some
studies have shown that borage oil, 1.1-2.8 grams per day for at least three
months, reduces symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis. [3-5, 16, 17] Tumor
necrosis factor-alpha has been shown to be a central mediator of
inflammatory and joint destructive processes in rheumatoid arthritis.
Evidence from published research indicates gamma linolenic acid component
of borage oil increases prostaglandin E levels that increase cAMP levels that
in turn suppress tumor necrosis factor-alpha synthesis. [37]
Borage oil may have benefits on stress response and high blood pressure.
Mills DE and co-workers from University of Waterloo, Canada fed 30 men
with supplements of borage oil (containing gamma linolenic acid; 18:3n-6),
fish oil (containing eicosapentaenoic acid; 20:5n-3), or olive oil (placebo) for
28 days. They assessed the men with Stroop colour-word conflict prior to
and following treatment. The researchers found that borage oil alone
attenuated blood pressure and heart rate responses to stress, increased
skin temperature, and improved task performance. [22]
Researchers from the same group supplied normotensive humans with
different dietary oils at a dose of 4.5 ml/day for 4 wk. They found that
borage oil augmented the plasma norepinephrine and vasoconstrictor
responses to -40 mmHg lower body negative pressure, as well as the reflex
vasodilation on its cessation significantly. The researchers suggest that
borage oil augments the arterial baroreflex control of vascular resistance.
[24]
There are also some other studies showing that dietary borage oil has a
blood pressure lowering effect in hypertensive and normotensive rats. [40-
43]
Borage oil may have benefits on inflammatory conditions.
There are reports that vegetable oils containing gammalinolenic acid (GLA)
may exert beneficial effects on various types of inflammatory conditions. [21,
23,25-31] For instance, recent research has demonstrated the potential of
borage oil to modulate pulmonary inflammation, thereby improving lung
compliance and oxygenation, and reducing time on mechanical ventilation.
[33]
Borage oil may benefit people suffered from eczema or other skin
inflammation. Studies have shown the effectiveness of borage oil on atopic
dermatitis or eczema with reduction in itching, dryness and skin
inflammation. [6,8,18,19,34]
A research team from University of California, Davis supplemented guinea
pigs with either safflower oil (less than 0.5% GLA) or borage oil, (25% GLA)
for 8 weeks. They then analyzed the skin tissues from both group. They
found significant increases in the amounts of the 15-hydroxy fatty acid (15-
OH-20:3n-6) and prostaglandin PGE1, both metabolites of DGLA in the
borage oil fed group. Since these metabolites have anti-inflammatory
benefits, intake of borage oil may have benefits of suppressing cutaneous
inflammatory skin disorders. [21] However, a study was unable to
reproduce the results.
[7]
A 12-month study of 24 asthma patients shows that 2.0 g daily GLA (borage
oil) modulated endogenous inflammatory mediators without side effects. [35]
Ormerod LD and co-workers from Harvard Medical School, Boston found that
Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) (borage oil) proved consistently superior to
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (sardine oil) in modulating the neovascular
response judged by three neovascular indices. GLA significantly reduced the
polymorphonuclear leukocyte and macrophage inflammatory infiltrate and
EPA reduced the macrophage component, both with high dose; EPA also
reduced keratocyte proliferation in alkali-burned rabbit corneas. [23]
Borage oil may have benefits of cutting cancer risks.
Pham H. from University of California-Davis suggested the beneficial effects
of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) on prostate cancer. In vitro studies, the GLA
has been shown to suppress tumor growth. Pham H. and co-workers
induced prostate adenocarcinomas in two groups of L-W rats. They
supplemented one group with gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). At the end of
experiment, they found that intake of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) reduced
prostate cancer development in the rats. [32]
Borage oil may have benefits of cholesterol-lowering.
Studies of rats demonstrated that both n-6 fatty acid and n-3 fatty acids
such as gamma-linolenic acid and alpha-linolenic acid lowered serum total
cholesterol and VLDL+IDL+LDL-cholesterol concentrations of rats in the
presence of excess cholesterol in the diet compared with dietary saturated
fatty acid. [38,39]
Side Effects of Borage Oil Supplements
Researchers claim dietary gammalinolenic acid (GLA) can attenuate the
clinical course of rheumatoid arthritis, with negligible side effects. Takwale A
at George Eliot Hospital reported borage oil supplement was well-tolerated
in adults and children suffered from atopic eczema. [36] Similarly,
researchers from University of California at Davis noticed no side effects
when they applied borage oil to patients suffered from asthma (16-75 year
old) for 12 months. [35]
However, minor side effects from borage oil use can include bloating,
nausea, indigestion, and headache. [20] In addition, dietary gamma-
linolenic acid or borage oil is found to alter platelet membrane functioning.
[43] Consequently, if you have blood-clotting, bleeding or low blood
pressure issues or if you are pregnant, you should avoid borage oil
supplements.
THIS ARTICLE IS FOR YOUR REFERENCE ONLY. YOU SHOULD CONSULT WITH YOUR
DOCTOR IF YOU HAVE ANY QUESTION AND BEFORE TAKING ANY SUPPLEMENTS. ALL
RIGHTS RESERVED ZHION 2008. DO NOT COPY THIS ARTICLE TO OTHER WEBSITE(S)
NOR OTHER BLOG(S) NOR OTHER TYPES OF PUBLICATIONS.
References 1. Wren RC. PotterÂ’s New Cyclopedia of Botanical Drugs and
Preparations. Essex, England: C.W. Daniel and Co., 1988, 41. 2. Horrobin DF. The
importance of gamma-linolenic acid and prostaglandin E1 in human nutrition and
medicine. J Holistic Med 1981;3:118-39. 3. Pullman-Mooar S, , et al. Alteration of the
cellular fatty acid profile and the production of eicosanoids in human monocytes by
gamma-linolenic acid. Arthritis Rheum 1990;33:1526-33. 4. Leventhal LJ, Boyce EG,
Zurier RB. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with gammalinolenic acid. Ann Intern Med
1993;119:867-73. 5. Zurier RB, et al. Gamma-linolenic acid treatment of rheumatoid
arthritis. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 1996;39:1808-17. 6.
Landi G. Oral administration of borage oil in atopic dermatitis. J Appl Cosmetology
1993;11:115-20. 7. Borreck S, et al Borage seed oil and atopic dermatitis. Klinische
Pediatrie 1997;203:100-4. 8. Tolleson A, Frithz A. Borage oil, an effective new
treatment for infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1993;25:95. 9. Horrobin
DF, Manku M, Brush M, et al. Abnormalities in plasma essential fatty acid levels in
women with pre-menstrual syndrome and with non-malignant breast disease. J Nutr
Med 1991;2:259–64. 10. Keen H, Payan J, Allawi J, et al. Treatment of diabetic
neuropathy with gamma-linolenic acid. Diabetes Care 1993;16:8–15. 11. Horrobin
DF. Essential fatty acid metabolism in diseases of connective tissue with special
reference to scleroderma and to SjogrenÂ’s syndrome. Med Hypotheses 1984;14:
233–47. 12. Horrobin DF, Campbell A. Sjogren’s syndrome and the sicca syndrome:
the role of prostaglandin E1 deficiency. Treatment with essential fatty acids and
vitamin C. Med Hypotheses 1980;6:225–32. 13. Vaddadi KS, Gilleard CJ. Essential
fatty acids, tardive dyskinesia, and schizophrenia. In Omega-6 Essential Fatty Acids:
Pathophysiology and Roles in Clinical Medicine. Horrobin DF (ed). New York: Alan R
Liss, 1990, 333–43. 14. Manku MS, Horrobin, DF, Morse NL, et al. Essential fatty
acids in the plasma phospholipids of patients with atopic eczema. Br J Dermatol 1984;
110:643. 15. Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acids in clinical dermatology. J Am Acad
Dermatol 1989;20:1045–53. 16. Leventhal LJ, Boyce EG, Zurier RB. Treatment of
rheumatoid arthritis with gammalinolenic acid. Ann Intern Med 1993;119:867–73.
17. Zurier RB, Rossetti RG, Jacobson EW, et al. Gamma-linolenic acid treatment of
rheumatoid arthritis. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 1996;39:
1808–17. 18. Landi G. Oral administration of borage oil in atopic dermatitis. J Appl
Cosmetology 1993;11:115–20. 19. Tolleson A, Frithz A. Borage oil, an effective new
treatment for infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1993;25:95. 20. Awang
DVC. Borage. Can Pharm J 1990;123:121–3. [21] Miller CC, Ziboh VA.
Gammalinolenic acid-enriched diet alters cutaneous eicosanoids. Biochem Biophys
Res Commun. 1988 Aug 15;154(3):967-74. [22] Mills DE, et al, Dietary fatty acid
supplementation alters stress reactivity and performance in man. J Hum Hypertens.
1989 Apr;3(2):111-6. [23] Ormerod LD et al, Effects of altering the eicosanoid
precursor pool on neovascularization and inflammation in the alkali-burned rabbit
cornea. Am J Pathol. 1990 Nov;137(5):1243-52. [24] Mills DE, et al, Alteration of
baroreflex control of forearm vascular resistance by dietary fatty acids. Am J Physiol.
1990 Dec;259(6 Pt 2):R1164-71. [25] Miller CC, et al, Dietary supplementation with
ethyl ester concentrates of fish oil (n-3) and borage oil (n-6) polyunsaturated fatty
acids induces epidermal generation of local putative anti-inflammatory metabolites. J
Invest Dermatol. 1991 Jan;96(1):98-103. [26] Ziboh VA, Fletcher MP. Dose-response
effects of dietary gamma-linolenic acid-enriched oils on human polymorphonuclear-
neutrophil biosynthesis of leukotriene B4. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992 Jan;55(1):39-45. [27]
Bahmer FA, Schafer J. Treatment of atopic dermatitis with borage seed oil (Glandol)--
a time series analytic studyKinderarztl Prax. 1992 Oct;60(7):199-202. [28]
Raederstorff D, Moser U. Borage or primrose oil added to standardized diets are
equivalent sources for gamma-linolenic acid in rats. Lipids. 1992 Dec;27(12):1018-
23. [29] Tollesson A, Frithz A. Transepidermal water loss and water content in the
stratum corneum in infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol. 1993 Feb;73
(1):18-20. [30] Bell JG, et al, Diets rich in eicosapentaenoic acid and gamma-linolenic
acid affect phospholipid fatty acid composition and production of prostaglandins E1,
E2 and E3 in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), a species deficient in delta 5 fatty acid
desaturase. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1995 Oct;53(4):279-86. [31]
Chilton-Lopez et al, Metabolism of gammalinolenic acid in human neutrophils. J
Immunol. 1996 Apr 15;156(8):2941-7. [32] Pham H, Dietary gamma-linolenate
attenuates tumor growth in a rodent model of prostatic adenocarcinoma via
suppression of elevated generation of PGE(2) and 5S-HETE. Prostaglandins Leukot
Essent Fatty Acids. 2006 Apr;74(4):271-82. Epub 2006 Mar 29. [33] Mizock BA,
DeMichele SJ. The acute respiratory distress syndrome: role of nutritional modulation
of inflammation through dietary lipids. Nutr Clin Pract. 2004 Dec;19(6):563-74. [34]
Saevik BK, Bergvall K, Holm BR, Saijonmaa-Koulumies LE, Hedhammar A, Larsen S,
Kristensen F. A randomized, controlled study to evaluate the steroid sparing effect of
essential fatty acid supplementation in the treatment of canine atopic dermatitis. Vet
Dermatol. 2004 Jun;15(3):137-45. [35] Ziboh VA, et al, Suppression of leukotriene
B4 generation by ex-vivo neutrophils isolated from asthma patients on dietary
supplementation with gammalinolenic acid-containing borage oil: possible implication
in asthma. Clin Dev Immunol. 2004 Mar;11(1):13-21. [36] Takwale A, et al, Efficacy
and tolerability of borage oil in adults and children with atopic eczema: randomised,
double blind, placebo controlled, parallel group trial. BMJ. 2003 Dec 13;327(7428):
1385. [37] Kast RE. Borage oil reduction of rheumatoid arthritis activity may be
mediated by increased cAMP that suppresses tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Int
Immunopharmacol. 2001 Nov;1(12):2197-9. [38] Fukushima M, et al, Investigation
of gene expressions related to cholesterol metabolism in rats fed diets enriched in n-
6 or n-3 fatty acid with a cholesterol after long-term feeding using quantitative-
competitive RT-PCR analysis. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 2001 Jun;47(3):228-35.
[39] Fukushima M, et al, Effects of diets enriched in n-6 or n-3 fatty acids on
cholesterol metabolism in older rats chronically fed a cholesterol-enriched diet. Lipids.
2001 Mar;36(3):261-6. [40] Engler MM, Dietary gamma-linolenic acid lowers blood
pressure and alters aortic reactivity and cholesterol metabolism in hypertension. J
Hypertens. 1992 Oct;10(10):1197-204. [41] Engler MM, Engler MB. Dietary borage oil
alters plasma, hepatic and vascular tissue fatty acid composition in spontaneously
hypertensive rats. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1998 Jul;59(1):11-5.
[42] Engler MM, et al, Effects of dietary gamma-linolenic acid on blood pressure and
adrenal angiotensin receptors in hypertensive rats. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1998 Jul;
218(3):234-7. [43] Engler MM. Comparative study of diets enriched with evening
primrose, black currant, borage or fungal oils on blood pressure and pressor
responses in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty
Acids. 1993 Oct;49(4):809-14. [43] Barre DE, Holub BJ. The effect of borage oil
consumption on the composition of individual phospholipids in human platelets.
Lipids. 1992 May;27(5):315-20.
Borage is a plant with blue, star-shaped flowers originated from Europe and
North Africa and now you can find this plant in America. [1] The oil extracted
from its seeds contain gamma linolenic acid (GLA), a fatty acid that the body
converts to a hormone-like substance called prostaglandin E1 (PGE1). PGE1
has anti-inflammatory properties and may have benefits of blood thinning
and blood vessel dilation.
Diseases such as premenstrual syndrome,9 diabetes,10 scleroderma,11
SjogrenÂ’s syndrome,12 tardive dyskinesia,13 eczema , aging, high
saturated fat or hydrogenated oil levels can interfere the conversion of
linolenic acid into PGE1. [9-14] Some manufacturers and researchers believe
that supplementation of GLA can solve these conversion problems. [2]
Health Benefits of Borage Seed Oil Supplements
Borage oil may benefit people suffered from rheumatoid arthritis.
Recent double blind studies have shown some benefit of borage oil in
treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with negligible side effects. [35,37] Some
studies have shown that borage oil, 1.1-2.8 grams per day for at least three
months, reduces symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis. [3-5, 16, 17] Tumor
necrosis factor-alpha has been shown to be a central mediator of
inflammatory and joint destructive processes in rheumatoid arthritis.
Evidence from published research indicates gamma linolenic acid component
of borage oil increases prostaglandin E levels that increase cAMP levels that
in turn suppress tumor necrosis factor-alpha synthesis. [37]
Borage oil may have benefits on stress response and high blood pressure.
Mills DE and co-workers from University of Waterloo, Canada fed 30 men
with supplements of borage oil (containing gamma linolenic acid; 18:3n-6),
fish oil (containing eicosapentaenoic acid; 20:5n-3), or olive oil (placebo) for
28 days. They assessed the men with Stroop colour-word conflict prior to
and following treatment. The researchers found that borage oil alone
attenuated blood pressure and heart rate responses to stress, increased
skin temperature, and improved task performance. [22]
Researchers from the same group supplied normotensive humans with
different dietary oils at a dose of 4.5 ml/day for 4 wk. They found that
borage oil augmented the plasma norepinephrine and vasoconstrictor
responses to -40 mmHg lower body negative pressure, as well as the reflex
vasodilation on its cessation significantly. The researchers suggest that
borage oil augments the arterial baroreflex control of vascular resistance.
[24]
There are also some other studies showing that dietary borage oil has a
blood pressure lowering effect in hypertensive and normotensive rats. [40-
43]
Borage oil may have benefits on inflammatory conditions.
There are reports that vegetable oils containing gammalinolenic acid (GLA)
may exert beneficial effects on various types of inflammatory conditions. [21,
23,25-31] For instance, recent research has demonstrated the potential of
borage oil to modulate pulmonary inflammation, thereby improving lung
compliance and oxygenation, and reducing time on mechanical ventilation.
[33]
Borage oil may benefit people suffered from eczema or other skin
inflammation. Studies have shown the effectiveness of borage oil on atopic
dermatitis or eczema with reduction in itching, dryness and skin
inflammation. [6,8,18,19,34]
A research team from University of California, Davis supplemented guinea
pigs with either safflower oil (less than 0.5% GLA) or borage oil, (25% GLA)
for 8 weeks. They then analyzed the skin tissues from both group. They
found significant increases in the amounts of the 15-hydroxy fatty acid (15-
OH-20:3n-6) and prostaglandin PGE1, both metabolites of DGLA in the
borage oil fed group. Since these metabolites have anti-inflammatory
benefits, intake of borage oil may have benefits of suppressing cutaneous
inflammatory skin disorders. [21] However, a study was unable to
reproduce the results.
[7]
A 12-month study of 24 asthma patients shows that 2.0 g daily GLA (borage
oil) modulated endogenous inflammatory mediators without side effects. [35]
Ormerod LD and co-workers from Harvard Medical School, Boston found that
Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) (borage oil) proved consistently superior to
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (sardine oil) in modulating the neovascular
response judged by three neovascular indices. GLA significantly reduced the
polymorphonuclear leukocyte and macrophage inflammatory infiltrate and
EPA reduced the macrophage component, both with high dose; EPA also
reduced keratocyte proliferation in alkali-burned rabbit corneas. [23]
Borage oil may have benefits of cutting cancer risks.
Pham H. from University of California-Davis suggested the beneficial effects
of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) on prostate cancer. In vitro studies, the GLA
has been shown to suppress tumor growth. Pham H. and co-workers
induced prostate adenocarcinomas in two groups of L-W rats. They
supplemented one group with gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). At the end of
experiment, they found that intake of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) reduced
prostate cancer development in the rats. [32]
Borage oil may have benefits of cholesterol-lowering.
Studies of rats demonstrated that both n-6 fatty acid and n-3 fatty acids
such as gamma-linolenic acid and alpha-linolenic acid lowered serum total
cholesterol and VLDL+IDL+LDL-cholesterol concentrations of rats in the
presence of excess cholesterol in the diet compared with dietary saturated
fatty acid. [38,39]
Side Effects of Borage Oil Supplements
Researchers claim dietary gammalinolenic acid (GLA) can attenuate the
clinical course of rheumatoid arthritis, with negligible side effects. Takwale A
at George Eliot Hospital reported borage oil supplement was well-tolerated
in adults and children suffered from atopic eczema. [36] Similarly,
researchers from University of California at Davis noticed no side effects
when they applied borage oil to patients suffered from asthma (16-75 year
old) for 12 months. [35]
However, minor side effects from borage oil use can include bloating,
nausea, indigestion, and headache. [20] In addition, dietary gamma-
linolenic acid or borage oil is found to alter platelet membrane functioning.
[43] Consequently, if you have blood-clotting, bleeding or low blood
pressure issues or if you are pregnant, you should avoid borage oil
supplements.
THIS ARTICLE IS FOR YOUR REFERENCE ONLY. YOU SHOULD CONSULT WITH YOUR
DOCTOR IF YOU HAVE ANY QUESTION AND BEFORE TAKING ANY SUPPLEMENTS. ALL
RIGHTS RESERVED ZHION 2008. DO NOT COPY THIS ARTICLE TO OTHER WEBSITE(S)
NOR OTHER BLOG(S) NOR OTHER TYPES OF PUBLICATIONS.
References 1. Wren RC. PotterÂ’s New Cyclopedia of Botanical Drugs and
Preparations. Essex, England: C.W. Daniel and Co., 1988, 41. 2. Horrobin DF. The
importance of gamma-linolenic acid and prostaglandin E1 in human nutrition and
medicine. J Holistic Med 1981;3:118-39. 3. Pullman-Mooar S, , et al. Alteration of the
cellular fatty acid profile and the production of eicosanoids in human monocytes by
gamma-linolenic acid. Arthritis Rheum 1990;33:1526-33. 4. Leventhal LJ, Boyce EG,
Zurier RB. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with gammalinolenic acid. Ann Intern Med
1993;119:867-73. 5. Zurier RB, et al. Gamma-linolenic acid treatment of rheumatoid
arthritis. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 1996;39:1808-17. 6.
Landi G. Oral administration of borage oil in atopic dermatitis. J Appl Cosmetology
1993;11:115-20. 7. Borreck S, et al Borage seed oil and atopic dermatitis. Klinische
Pediatrie 1997;203:100-4. 8. Tolleson A, Frithz A. Borage oil, an effective new
treatment for infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1993;25:95. 9. Horrobin
DF, Manku M, Brush M, et al. Abnormalities in plasma essential fatty acid levels in
women with pre-menstrual syndrome and with non-malignant breast disease. J Nutr
Med 1991;2:259–64. 10. Keen H, Payan J, Allawi J, et al. Treatment of diabetic
neuropathy with gamma-linolenic acid. Diabetes Care 1993;16:8–15. 11. Horrobin
DF. Essential fatty acid metabolism in diseases of connective tissue with special
reference to scleroderma and to SjogrenÂ’s syndrome. Med Hypotheses 1984;14:
233–47. 12. Horrobin DF, Campbell A. Sjogren’s syndrome and the sicca syndrome:
the role of prostaglandin E1 deficiency. Treatment with essential fatty acids and
vitamin C. Med Hypotheses 1980;6:225–32. 13. Vaddadi KS, Gilleard CJ. Essential
fatty acids, tardive dyskinesia, and schizophrenia. In Omega-6 Essential Fatty Acids:
Pathophysiology and Roles in Clinical Medicine. Horrobin DF (ed). New York: Alan R
Liss, 1990, 333–43. 14. Manku MS, Horrobin, DF, Morse NL, et al. Essential fatty
acids in the plasma phospholipids of patients with atopic eczema. Br J Dermatol 1984;
110:643. 15. Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acids in clinical dermatology. J Am Acad
Dermatol 1989;20:1045–53. 16. Leventhal LJ, Boyce EG, Zurier RB. Treatment of
rheumatoid arthritis with gammalinolenic acid. Ann Intern Med 1993;119:867–73.
17. Zurier RB, Rossetti RG, Jacobson EW, et al. Gamma-linolenic acid treatment of
rheumatoid arthritis. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 1996;39:
1808–17. 18. Landi G. Oral administration of borage oil in atopic dermatitis. J Appl
Cosmetology 1993;11:115–20. 19. Tolleson A, Frithz A. Borage oil, an effective new
treatment for infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1993;25:95. 20. Awang
DVC. Borage. Can Pharm J 1990;123:121–3. [21] Miller CC, Ziboh VA.
Gammalinolenic acid-enriched diet alters cutaneous eicosanoids. Biochem Biophys
Res Commun. 1988 Aug 15;154(3):967-74. [22] Mills DE, et al, Dietary fatty acid
supplementation alters stress reactivity and performance in man. J Hum Hypertens.
1989 Apr;3(2):111-6. [23] Ormerod LD et al, Effects of altering the eicosanoid
precursor pool on neovascularization and inflammation in the alkali-burned rabbit
cornea. Am J Pathol. 1990 Nov;137(5):1243-52. [24] Mills DE, et al, Alteration of
baroreflex control of forearm vascular resistance by dietary fatty acids. Am J Physiol.
1990 Dec;259(6 Pt 2):R1164-71. [25] Miller CC, et al, Dietary supplementation with
ethyl ester concentrates of fish oil (n-3) and borage oil (n-6) polyunsaturated fatty
acids induces epidermal generation of local putative anti-inflammatory metabolites. J
Invest Dermatol. 1991 Jan;96(1):98-103. [26] Ziboh VA, Fletcher MP. Dose-response
effects of dietary gamma-linolenic acid-enriched oils on human polymorphonuclear-
neutrophil biosynthesis of leukotriene B4. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992 Jan;55(1):39-45. [27]
Bahmer FA, Schafer J. Treatment of atopic dermatitis with borage seed oil (Glandol)--
a time series analytic studyKinderarztl Prax. 1992 Oct;60(7):199-202. [28]
Raederstorff D, Moser U. Borage or primrose oil added to standardized diets are
equivalent sources for gamma-linolenic acid in rats. Lipids. 1992 Dec;27(12):1018-
23. [29] Tollesson A, Frithz A. Transepidermal water loss and water content in the
stratum corneum in infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol. 1993 Feb;73
(1):18-20. [30] Bell JG, et al, Diets rich in eicosapentaenoic acid and gamma-linolenic
acid affect phospholipid fatty acid composition and production of prostaglandins E1,
E2 and E3 in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), a species deficient in delta 5 fatty acid
desaturase. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1995 Oct;53(4):279-86. [31]
Chilton-Lopez et al, Metabolism of gammalinolenic acid in human neutrophils. J
Immunol. 1996 Apr 15;156(8):2941-7. [32] Pham H, Dietary gamma-linolenate
attenuates tumor growth in a rodent model of prostatic adenocarcinoma via
suppression of elevated generation of PGE(2) and 5S-HETE. Prostaglandins Leukot
Essent Fatty Acids. 2006 Apr;74(4):271-82. Epub 2006 Mar 29. [33] Mizock BA,
DeMichele SJ. The acute respiratory distress syndrome: role of nutritional modulation
of inflammation through dietary lipids. Nutr Clin Pract. 2004 Dec;19(6):563-74. [34]
Saevik BK, Bergvall K, Holm BR, Saijonmaa-Koulumies LE, Hedhammar A, Larsen S,
Kristensen F. A randomized, controlled study to evaluate the steroid sparing effect of
essential fatty acid supplementation in the treatment of canine atopic dermatitis. Vet
Dermatol. 2004 Jun;15(3):137-45. [35] Ziboh VA, et al, Suppression of leukotriene
B4 generation by ex-vivo neutrophils isolated from asthma patients on dietary
supplementation with gammalinolenic acid-containing borage oil: possible implication
in asthma. Clin Dev Immunol. 2004 Mar;11(1):13-21. [36] Takwale A, et al, Efficacy
and tolerability of borage oil in adults and children with atopic eczema: randomised,
double blind, placebo controlled, parallel group trial. BMJ. 2003 Dec 13;327(7428):
1385. [37] Kast RE. Borage oil reduction of rheumatoid arthritis activity may be
mediated by increased cAMP that suppresses tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Int
Immunopharmacol. 2001 Nov;1(12):2197-9. [38] Fukushima M, et al, Investigation
of gene expressions related to cholesterol metabolism in rats fed diets enriched in n-
6 or n-3 fatty acid with a cholesterol after long-term feeding using quantitative-
competitive RT-PCR analysis. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 2001 Jun;47(3):228-35.
[39] Fukushima M, et al, Effects of diets enriched in n-6 or n-3 fatty acids on
cholesterol metabolism in older rats chronically fed a cholesterol-enriched diet. Lipids.
2001 Mar;36(3):261-6. [40] Engler MM, Dietary gamma-linolenic acid lowers blood
pressure and alters aortic reactivity and cholesterol metabolism in hypertension. J
Hypertens. 1992 Oct;10(10):1197-204. [41] Engler MM, Engler MB. Dietary borage oil
alters plasma, hepatic and vascular tissue fatty acid composition in spontaneously
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