Borage Oil Health Benefits and Side Effects - supplements, inflammation
and cancer. - ZHION.COM August 24 2011, zhion@zhion.com
and cancer. - ZHION.COM August 24 2011, zhion@zhion.com
Borage (Borago officinalis)
Borage is a plant with blue, star-shaped flowers originated from Europe and North Africa and now you can find
this plant in America. [1] The oil extracted from its seeds contain gamma linolenic acid (GLA), a fatty acid that
the body converts to a hormone-like substance called prostaglandin E1 (PGE1). PGE1 has anti-inflammatory
properties and may have benefits of blood thinning and blood vessel dilation.
Diseases such as premenstrual syndrome,9 diabetes,10 scleroderma,11 SjogrenÂ’s syndrome,12 tardive
dyskinesia,13 eczema , aging, high saturated fat or hydrogenated oil levels can interfere the conversion of
linolenic acid into PGE1. [9-14] Some manufacturers and researchers believe that supplementation of GLA can
solve these conversion problems. [2]
Health Benefits of Borage Seed Oil Supplements
Borage oil may benefit people suffered from rheumatoid arthritis. Recent double blind studies have shown some
benefit of borage oil in treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with negligible side effects. [35,37] Some studies have
shown that borage oil, 1.1-2.8 grams per day for at least three months, reduces symptoms of rheumatoid
arthritis. [3-5, 16, 17] Tumor necrosis factor-alpha has been shown to be a central mediator of inflammatory and
joint destructive processes in rheumatoid arthritis. Evidence from published research indicates gamma linolenic
acid component of borage oil increases prostaglandin E levels that increase cAMP levels that in turn suppress
tumor necrosis factor-alpha synthesis. [37]
Borage oil may have benefits on stress response and high blood pressure.
Mills DE and co-workers from University of Waterloo, Canada fed 30 men with supplements of borage oil
(containing gamma linolenic acid; 18:3n-6), fish oil (containing eicosapentaenoic acid; 20:5n-3), or olive oil
(placebo) for 28 days. They assessed the men with Stroop colour-word conflict prior to and following treatment.
The researchers found that borage oil alone attenuated blood pressure and heart rate responses to stress,
increased skin temperature, and improved task performance. [22]
Researchers from the same group supplied normotensive humans with different dietary oils at a dose of 4.5
ml/day for 4 wk. They found that borage oil augmented the plasma norepinephrine and vasoconstrictor
responses to -40 mmHg lower body negative pressure, as well as the reflex vasodilation on its cessation
significantly. The researchers suggest that borage oil augments the arterial baroreflex control of vascular
resistance. [24]
There are also some other studies showing that dietary borage oil has a blood pressure lowering effect in
hypertensive and normotensive rats. [40-43]
Borage oil may have benefits on inflammatory conditions.
There are reports that vegetable oils containing gammalinolenic acid (GLA) may exert beneficial effects on
various types of inflammatory conditions. [21, 23,25-31] For instance, recent research has demonstrated the
potential of borage oil to modulate pulmonary inflammation, thereby improving lung compliance and
oxygenation, and reducing time on mechanical ventilation. [33]
Borage oil may benefit people suffered from eczema or other skin inflammation. Studies have shown the
effectiveness of borage oil on atopic dermatitis or eczema with reduction in itching, dryness and skin
inflammation. [6,8,18,19,34]
A research team from University of California, Davis supplemented guinea pigs with either safflower oil (less
than 0.5% GLA) or borage oil, (25% GLA) for 8 weeks. They then analyzed the skin tissues from both group.
They found significant increases in the amounts of the 15-hydroxy fatty acid (15-OH-20:3n-6) and prostaglandin
PGE1, both metabolites of DGLA in the borage oil fed group. Since these metabolites have anti-inflammatory
benefits, intake of borage oil may have benefits of suppressing cutaneous inflammatory skin disorders. [21]
However, a study was unable to reproduce the results.
[7]
A 12-month study of 24 asthma patients shows that 2.0 g daily GLA (borage oil) modulated endogenous
inflammatory mediators without side effects. [35]
Ormerod LD and co-workers from Harvard Medical School, Boston found that Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA)
(borage oil) proved consistently superior to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (sardine oil) in modulating the
neovascular response judged by three neovascular indices. GLA significantly reduced the polymorphonuclear
leukocyte and macrophage inflammatory infiltrate and EPA reduced the macrophage component, both with high
dose; EPA also reduced keratocyte proliferation in alkali-burned rabbit corneas. [23]
Borage oil may have benefits of cutting cancer risks.
Pham H. from University of California-Davis suggested the beneficial effects of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) on
prostate cancer. In vitro studies, the GLA has been shown to suppress tumor growth. Pham H. and co-workers
induced prostate adenocarcinomas in two groups of L-W rats. They supplemented one group with gamma-
linolenic acid (GLA). At the end of experiment, they found that intake of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) reduced
prostate cancer development in the rats. [32]
Borage oil may have benefits of cholesterol-lowering.
Studies of rats demonstrated that both n-6 fatty acid and n-3 fatty acids such as gamma-linolenic acid and
alpha-linolenic acid lowered serum total cholesterol and VLDL+IDL+LDL-cholesterol concentrations of rats in
the presence of excess cholesterol in the diet compared with dietary saturated fatty acid. [38,39]
Side Effects of Borage Oil Supplements
Researchers claim dietary gammalinolenic acid (GLA) can attenuate the clinical course of rheumatoid arthritis,
with negligible side effects. Takwale A at George Eliot Hospital reported borage oil supplement was well-
tolerated in adults and children suffered from atopic eczema. [36] Similarly, researchers from University of
California at Davis noticed no side effects when they applied borage oil to patients suffered from asthma (16-75
year old) for 12 months. [35]
However, minor side effects from borage oil use can include bloating, nausea, indigestion, and headache. [20]
In addition, dietary gamma-linolenic acid or borage oil is found to alter platelet membrane functioning. [43]
Consequently, if you have blood-clotting, bleeding or low blood pressure issues or if you are pregnant, you
should avoid borage oil supplements.
Evening primrose oil and borage should not be used with anticonvulsants because they may lower the seizure
threshold. [A1], Al-Khamees WA and co workers at Georgia Poison Center reported a case of status epilepticus
in a patient who consumed borage oil for one week. [A2] According to Wikipedia, status epilepticus (SE) is a life-
threatening condition in which the brain is in a state of persistent seizure. Anyway, more studies are needed to
confirm how seizure is correlated with intake of borage oil.
GRAS?
No. Borage is not found in GRAS list.
THIS ARTICLE IS FOR YOUR REFERENCE ONLY. YOU SHOULD CONSULT WITH YOUR DOCTOR IF YOU HAVE ANY QUESTION
AND BEFORE TAKING ANY SUPPLEMENTS. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ZHION 2011. DO NOT COPY THIS ARTICLE TO OTHER
WEBSITE(S) NOR OTHER BLOG(S) NOR OTHER TYPES OF PUBLICATIONS.
References 1. Wren RC. PotterÂ’s New Cyclopedia of Botanical Drugs and Preparations. Essex, England: C.W. Daniel and Co.,
1988, 41. 2. Horrobin DF. The importance of gamma-linolenic acid and prostaglandin E1 in human nutrition and medicine. J
Holistic Med 1981;3:118-39. 3. Pullman-Mooar S, , et al. Alteration of the cellular fatty acid profile and the production of
eicosanoids in human monocytes by gamma-linolenic acid. Arthritis Rheum 1990;33:1526-33. 4. Leventhal LJ, Boyce EG,
Zurier RB. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with gammalinolenic acid. Ann Intern Med 1993;119:867-73. 5. Zurier RB, et al.
Gamma-linolenic acid treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 1996;39:
1808-17. 6. Landi G. Oral administration of borage oil in atopic dermatitis. J Appl Cosmetology 1993;11:115-20. 7. Borreck
S, et al Borage seed oil and atopic dermatitis. Klinische Pediatrie 1997;203:100-4. 8. Tolleson A, Frithz A. Borage oil, an
effective new treatment for infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1993;25:95. 9. Horrobin DF, Manku M, Brush M, et
al. Abnormalities in plasma essential fatty acid levels in women with pre-menstrual syndrome and with non-malignant breast
disease. J Nutr Med 1991;2:259–64. 10. Keen H, Payan J, Allawi J, et al. Treatment of diabetic neuropathy with gamma-
linolenic acid. Diabetes Care 1993;16:8–15. 11. Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acid metabolism in diseases of connective
tissue with special reference to scleroderma and to Sjogren’s syndrome. Med Hypotheses 1984;14:233–47. 12. Horrobin
DF, Campbell A. SjogrenÂ’s syndrome and the sicca syndrome: the role of prostaglandin E1 deficiency. Treatment with
essential fatty acids and vitamin C. Med Hypotheses 1980;6:225–32. 13. Vaddadi KS, Gilleard CJ. Essential fatty acids,
tardive dyskinesia, and schizophrenia. In Omega-6 Essential Fatty Acids: Pathophysiology and Roles in Clinical Medicine.
Horrobin DF (ed). New York: Alan R Liss, 1990, 333–43. 14. Manku MS, Horrobin, DF, Morse NL, et al. Essential fatty acids in
the plasma phospholipids of patients with atopic eczema. Br J Dermatol 1984;110:643. 15. Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acids
in clinical dermatology. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989;20:1045–53. 16. Leventhal LJ, Boyce EG, Zurier RB. Treatment of
rheumatoid arthritis with gammalinolenic acid. Ann Intern Med 1993;119:867–73. 17. Zurier RB, Rossetti RG, Jacobson EW,
et al. Gamma-linolenic acid treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 1996;
39:1808–17. 18. Landi G. Oral administration of borage oil in atopic dermatitis. J Appl Cosmetology 1993;11:115–20. 19.
Tolleson A, Frithz A. Borage oil, an effective new treatment for infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1993;25:95. 20.
Awang DVC. Borage. Can Pharm J 1990;123:121–3. [21] Miller CC, Ziboh VA. Gammalinolenic acid-enriched diet alters
cutaneous eicosanoids. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1988 Aug 15;154(3):967-74. [22] Mills DE, et al, Dietary fatty acid
supplementation alters stress reactivity and performance in man. J Hum Hypertens. 1989 Apr;3(2):111-6. [23] Ormerod LD
et al, Effects of altering the eicosanoid precursor pool on neovascularization and inflammation in the alkali-burned rabbit
cornea. Am J Pathol. 1990 Nov;137(5):1243-52. [24] Mills DE, et al, Alteration of baroreflex control of forearm vascular
resistance by dietary fatty acids. Am J Physiol. 1990 Dec;259(6 Pt 2):R1164-71. [25] Miller CC, et al, Dietary
supplementation with ethyl ester concentrates of fish oil (n-3) and borage oil (n-6) polyunsaturated fatty acids induces
epidermal generation of local putative anti-inflammatory metabolites. J Invest Dermatol. 1991 Jan;96(1):98-103. [26] Ziboh
VA, Fletcher MP. Dose-response effects of dietary gamma-linolenic acid-enriched oils on human polymorphonuclear-
neutrophil biosynthesis of leukotriene B4. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992 Jan;55(1):39-45. [27] Bahmer FA, Schafer J. Treatment of
atopic dermatitis with borage seed oil (Glandol)--a time series analytic studyKinderarztl Prax. 1992 Oct;60(7):199-202. [28]
Raederstorff D, Moser U. Borage or primrose oil added to standardized diets are equivalent sources for gamma-linolenic acid
in rats. Lipids. 1992 Dec;27(12):1018-23. [29] Tollesson A, Frithz A. Transepidermal water loss and water content in the
stratum corneum in infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol. 1993 Feb;73(1):18-20. [30] Bell JG, et al, Diets rich
in eicosapentaenoic acid and gamma-linolenic acid affect phospholipid fatty acid composition and production of
prostaglandins E1, E2 and E3 in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), a species deficient in delta 5 fatty acid desaturase.
Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1995 Oct;53(4):279-86. [31] Chilton-Lopez et al, Metabolism of gammalinolenic
acid in human neutrophils. J Immunol. 1996 Apr 15;156(8):2941-7. [32] Pham H, Dietary gamma-linolenate attenuates
tumor growth in a rodent model of prostatic adenocarcinoma via suppression of elevated generation of PGE(2) and 5S-HETE.
Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2006 Apr;74(4):271-82. Epub 2006 Mar 29. [33] Mizock BA, DeMichele SJ. The
acute respiratory distress syndrome: role of nutritional modulation of inflammation through dietary lipids. Nutr Clin Pract.
2004 Dec;19(6):563-74. [34] Saevik BK, Bergvall K, Holm BR, Saijonmaa-Koulumies LE, Hedhammar A, Larsen S, Kristensen
F. A randomized, controlled study to evaluate the steroid sparing effect of essential fatty acid supplementation in the
treatment of canine atopic dermatitis. Vet Dermatol. 2004 Jun;15(3):137-45. [35] Ziboh VA, et al, Suppression of leukotriene
B4 generation by ex-vivo neutrophils isolated from asthma patients on dietary supplementation with gammalinolenic acid-
containing borage oil: possible implication in asthma. Clin Dev Immunol. 2004 Mar;11(1):13-21. [36] Takwale A, et al,
Efficacy and tolerability of borage oil in adults and children with atopic eczema: randomised, double blind, placebo controlled,
parallel group trial. BMJ. 2003 Dec 13;327(7428):1385. [37] Kast RE. Borage oil reduction of rheumatoid arthritis activity may
be mediated by increased cAMP that suppresses tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Int Immunopharmacol. 2001 Nov;1(12):2197-
9. [38] Fukushima M, et al, Investigation of gene expressions related to cholesterol metabolism in rats fed diets enriched in
n-6 or n-3 fatty acid with a cholesterol after long-term feeding using quantitative-competitive RT-PCR analysis. J Nutr Sci
Vitaminol (Tokyo). 2001 Jun;47(3):228-35. [39] Fukushima M, et al, Effects of diets enriched in n-6 or n-3 fatty acids on
cholesterol metabolism in older rats chronically fed a cholesterol-enriched diet. Lipids. 2001 Mar;36(3):261-6. [40] Engler
MM, Dietary gamma-linolenic acid lowers blood pressure and alters aortic reactivity and cholesterol metabolism in
hypertension. J Hypertens. 1992 Oct;10(10):1197-204. [41] Engler MM, Engler MB. Dietary borage oil alters plasma, hepatic
and vascular tissue fatty acid composition in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1998
Jul;59(1):11-5. [42] Engler MM, et al, Effects of dietary gamma-linolenic acid on blood pressure and adrenal angiotensin
receptors in hypertensive rats. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1998 Jul;218(3):234-7. [43] Engler MM. Comparative study of diets
enriched with evening primrose, black currant, borage or fungal oils on blood pressure and pressor responses in
spontaneously hypertensive rats. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1993 Oct;49(4):809-14. [43] Barre DE, Holub BJ.
The effect of borage oil consumption on the composition of individual phospholipids in human platelets. Lipids. 1992 May;27
(5):315-20. [A1] FDA Poisonous Plant Database Herbal medicines: selected clinical considerations focusing on known or
potential drug-herb interactions Arch Intern Med, 158(20), 2200-2211 [A2] Al-Khamees WA, et al Status epilepticus
associated with borage oil ingestion. J Med Toxicol. 2011 Jun;7(2):154-7.
Borage is a plant with blue, star-shaped flowers originated from Europe and North Africa and now you can find
this plant in America. [1] The oil extracted from its seeds contain gamma linolenic acid (GLA), a fatty acid that
the body converts to a hormone-like substance called prostaglandin E1 (PGE1). PGE1 has anti-inflammatory
properties and may have benefits of blood thinning and blood vessel dilation.
Diseases such as premenstrual syndrome,9 diabetes,10 scleroderma,11 SjogrenÂ’s syndrome,12 tardive
dyskinesia,13 eczema , aging, high saturated fat or hydrogenated oil levels can interfere the conversion of
linolenic acid into PGE1. [9-14] Some manufacturers and researchers believe that supplementation of GLA can
solve these conversion problems. [2]
Health Benefits of Borage Seed Oil Supplements
Borage oil may benefit people suffered from rheumatoid arthritis. Recent double blind studies have shown some
benefit of borage oil in treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with negligible side effects. [35,37] Some studies have
shown that borage oil, 1.1-2.8 grams per day for at least three months, reduces symptoms of rheumatoid
arthritis. [3-5, 16, 17] Tumor necrosis factor-alpha has been shown to be a central mediator of inflammatory and
joint destructive processes in rheumatoid arthritis. Evidence from published research indicates gamma linolenic
acid component of borage oil increases prostaglandin E levels that increase cAMP levels that in turn suppress
tumor necrosis factor-alpha synthesis. [37]
Borage oil may have benefits on stress response and high blood pressure.
Mills DE and co-workers from University of Waterloo, Canada fed 30 men with supplements of borage oil
(containing gamma linolenic acid; 18:3n-6), fish oil (containing eicosapentaenoic acid; 20:5n-3), or olive oil
(placebo) for 28 days. They assessed the men with Stroop colour-word conflict prior to and following treatment.
The researchers found that borage oil alone attenuated blood pressure and heart rate responses to stress,
increased skin temperature, and improved task performance. [22]
Researchers from the same group supplied normotensive humans with different dietary oils at a dose of 4.5
ml/day for 4 wk. They found that borage oil augmented the plasma norepinephrine and vasoconstrictor
responses to -40 mmHg lower body negative pressure, as well as the reflex vasodilation on its cessation
significantly. The researchers suggest that borage oil augments the arterial baroreflex control of vascular
resistance. [24]
There are also some other studies showing that dietary borage oil has a blood pressure lowering effect in
hypertensive and normotensive rats. [40-43]
Borage oil may have benefits on inflammatory conditions.
There are reports that vegetable oils containing gammalinolenic acid (GLA) may exert beneficial effects on
various types of inflammatory conditions. [21, 23,25-31] For instance, recent research has demonstrated the
potential of borage oil to modulate pulmonary inflammation, thereby improving lung compliance and
oxygenation, and reducing time on mechanical ventilation. [33]
Borage oil may benefit people suffered from eczema or other skin inflammation. Studies have shown the
effectiveness of borage oil on atopic dermatitis or eczema with reduction in itching, dryness and skin
inflammation. [6,8,18,19,34]
A research team from University of California, Davis supplemented guinea pigs with either safflower oil (less
than 0.5% GLA) or borage oil, (25% GLA) for 8 weeks. They then analyzed the skin tissues from both group.
They found significant increases in the amounts of the 15-hydroxy fatty acid (15-OH-20:3n-6) and prostaglandin
PGE1, both metabolites of DGLA in the borage oil fed group. Since these metabolites have anti-inflammatory
benefits, intake of borage oil may have benefits of suppressing cutaneous inflammatory skin disorders. [21]
However, a study was unable to reproduce the results.
[7]
A 12-month study of 24 asthma patients shows that 2.0 g daily GLA (borage oil) modulated endogenous
inflammatory mediators without side effects. [35]
Ormerod LD and co-workers from Harvard Medical School, Boston found that Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA)
(borage oil) proved consistently superior to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (sardine oil) in modulating the
neovascular response judged by three neovascular indices. GLA significantly reduced the polymorphonuclear
leukocyte and macrophage inflammatory infiltrate and EPA reduced the macrophage component, both with high
dose; EPA also reduced keratocyte proliferation in alkali-burned rabbit corneas. [23]
Borage oil may have benefits of cutting cancer risks.
Pham H. from University of California-Davis suggested the beneficial effects of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) on
prostate cancer. In vitro studies, the GLA has been shown to suppress tumor growth. Pham H. and co-workers
induced prostate adenocarcinomas in two groups of L-W rats. They supplemented one group with gamma-
linolenic acid (GLA). At the end of experiment, they found that intake of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) reduced
prostate cancer development in the rats. [32]
Borage oil may have benefits of cholesterol-lowering.
Studies of rats demonstrated that both n-6 fatty acid and n-3 fatty acids such as gamma-linolenic acid and
alpha-linolenic acid lowered serum total cholesterol and VLDL+IDL+LDL-cholesterol concentrations of rats in
the presence of excess cholesterol in the diet compared with dietary saturated fatty acid. [38,39]
Side Effects of Borage Oil Supplements
Researchers claim dietary gammalinolenic acid (GLA) can attenuate the clinical course of rheumatoid arthritis,
with negligible side effects. Takwale A at George Eliot Hospital reported borage oil supplement was well-
tolerated in adults and children suffered from atopic eczema. [36] Similarly, researchers from University of
California at Davis noticed no side effects when they applied borage oil to patients suffered from asthma (16-75
year old) for 12 months. [35]
However, minor side effects from borage oil use can include bloating, nausea, indigestion, and headache. [20]
In addition, dietary gamma-linolenic acid or borage oil is found to alter platelet membrane functioning. [43]
Consequently, if you have blood-clotting, bleeding or low blood pressure issues or if you are pregnant, you
should avoid borage oil supplements.
Evening primrose oil and borage should not be used with anticonvulsants because they may lower the seizure
threshold. [A1], Al-Khamees WA and co workers at Georgia Poison Center reported a case of status epilepticus
in a patient who consumed borage oil for one week. [A2] According to Wikipedia, status epilepticus (SE) is a life-
threatening condition in which the brain is in a state of persistent seizure. Anyway, more studies are needed to
confirm how seizure is correlated with intake of borage oil.
GRAS?
No. Borage is not found in GRAS list.
THIS ARTICLE IS FOR YOUR REFERENCE ONLY. YOU SHOULD CONSULT WITH YOUR DOCTOR IF YOU HAVE ANY QUESTION
AND BEFORE TAKING ANY SUPPLEMENTS. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ZHION 2011. DO NOT COPY THIS ARTICLE TO OTHER
WEBSITE(S) NOR OTHER BLOG(S) NOR OTHER TYPES OF PUBLICATIONS.
References 1. Wren RC. PotterÂ’s New Cyclopedia of Botanical Drugs and Preparations. Essex, England: C.W. Daniel and Co.,
1988, 41. 2. Horrobin DF. The importance of gamma-linolenic acid and prostaglandin E1 in human nutrition and medicine. J
Holistic Med 1981;3:118-39. 3. Pullman-Mooar S, , et al. Alteration of the cellular fatty acid profile and the production of
eicosanoids in human monocytes by gamma-linolenic acid. Arthritis Rheum 1990;33:1526-33. 4. Leventhal LJ, Boyce EG,
Zurier RB. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with gammalinolenic acid. Ann Intern Med 1993;119:867-73. 5. Zurier RB, et al.
Gamma-linolenic acid treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 1996;39:
1808-17. 6. Landi G. Oral administration of borage oil in atopic dermatitis. J Appl Cosmetology 1993;11:115-20. 7. Borreck
S, et al Borage seed oil and atopic dermatitis. Klinische Pediatrie 1997;203:100-4. 8. Tolleson A, Frithz A. Borage oil, an
effective new treatment for infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1993;25:95. 9. Horrobin DF, Manku M, Brush M, et
al. Abnormalities in plasma essential fatty acid levels in women with pre-menstrual syndrome and with non-malignant breast
disease. J Nutr Med 1991;2:259–64. 10. Keen H, Payan J, Allawi J, et al. Treatment of diabetic neuropathy with gamma-
linolenic acid. Diabetes Care 1993;16:8–15. 11. Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acid metabolism in diseases of connective
tissue with special reference to scleroderma and to Sjogren’s syndrome. Med Hypotheses 1984;14:233–47. 12. Horrobin
DF, Campbell A. SjogrenÂ’s syndrome and the sicca syndrome: the role of prostaglandin E1 deficiency. Treatment with
essential fatty acids and vitamin C. Med Hypotheses 1980;6:225–32. 13. Vaddadi KS, Gilleard CJ. Essential fatty acids,
tardive dyskinesia, and schizophrenia. In Omega-6 Essential Fatty Acids: Pathophysiology and Roles in Clinical Medicine.
Horrobin DF (ed). New York: Alan R Liss, 1990, 333–43. 14. Manku MS, Horrobin, DF, Morse NL, et al. Essential fatty acids in
the plasma phospholipids of patients with atopic eczema. Br J Dermatol 1984;110:643. 15. Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acids
in clinical dermatology. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989;20:1045–53. 16. Leventhal LJ, Boyce EG, Zurier RB. Treatment of
rheumatoid arthritis with gammalinolenic acid. Ann Intern Med 1993;119:867–73. 17. Zurier RB, Rossetti RG, Jacobson EW,
et al. Gamma-linolenic acid treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 1996;
39:1808–17. 18. Landi G. Oral administration of borage oil in atopic dermatitis. J Appl Cosmetology 1993;11:115–20. 19.
Tolleson A, Frithz A. Borage oil, an effective new treatment for infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1993;25:95. 20.
Awang DVC. Borage. Can Pharm J 1990;123:121–3. [21] Miller CC, Ziboh VA. Gammalinolenic acid-enriched diet alters
cutaneous eicosanoids. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1988 Aug 15;154(3):967-74. [22] Mills DE, et al, Dietary fatty acid
supplementation alters stress reactivity and performance in man. J Hum Hypertens. 1989 Apr;3(2):111-6. [23] Ormerod LD
et al, Effects of altering the eicosanoid precursor pool on neovascularization and inflammation in the alkali-burned rabbit
cornea. Am J Pathol. 1990 Nov;137(5):1243-52. [24] Mills DE, et al, Alteration of baroreflex control of forearm vascular
resistance by dietary fatty acids. Am J Physiol. 1990 Dec;259(6 Pt 2):R1164-71. [25] Miller CC, et al, Dietary
supplementation with ethyl ester concentrates of fish oil (n-3) and borage oil (n-6) polyunsaturated fatty acids induces
epidermal generation of local putative anti-inflammatory metabolites. J Invest Dermatol. 1991 Jan;96(1):98-103. [26] Ziboh
VA, Fletcher MP. Dose-response effects of dietary gamma-linolenic acid-enriched oils on human polymorphonuclear-
neutrophil biosynthesis of leukotriene B4. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992 Jan;55(1):39-45. [27] Bahmer FA, Schafer J. Treatment of
atopic dermatitis with borage seed oil (Glandol)--a time series analytic studyKinderarztl Prax. 1992 Oct;60(7):199-202. [28]
Raederstorff D, Moser U. Borage or primrose oil added to standardized diets are equivalent sources for gamma-linolenic acid
in rats. Lipids. 1992 Dec;27(12):1018-23. [29] Tollesson A, Frithz A. Transepidermal water loss and water content in the
stratum corneum in infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol. 1993 Feb;73(1):18-20. [30] Bell JG, et al, Diets rich
in eicosapentaenoic acid and gamma-linolenic acid affect phospholipid fatty acid composition and production of
prostaglandins E1, E2 and E3 in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), a species deficient in delta 5 fatty acid desaturase.
Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1995 Oct;53(4):279-86. [31] Chilton-Lopez et al, Metabolism of gammalinolenic
acid in human neutrophils. J Immunol. 1996 Apr 15;156(8):2941-7. [32] Pham H, Dietary gamma-linolenate attenuates
tumor growth in a rodent model of prostatic adenocarcinoma via suppression of elevated generation of PGE(2) and 5S-HETE.
Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2006 Apr;74(4):271-82. Epub 2006 Mar 29. [33] Mizock BA, DeMichele SJ. The
acute respiratory distress syndrome: role of nutritional modulation of inflammation through dietary lipids. Nutr Clin Pract.
2004 Dec;19(6):563-74. [34] Saevik BK, Bergvall K, Holm BR, Saijonmaa-Koulumies LE, Hedhammar A, Larsen S, Kristensen
F. A randomized, controlled study to evaluate the steroid sparing effect of essential fatty acid supplementation in the
treatment of canine atopic dermatitis. Vet Dermatol. 2004 Jun;15(3):137-45. [35] Ziboh VA, et al, Suppression of leukotriene
B4 generation by ex-vivo neutrophils isolated from asthma patients on dietary supplementation with gammalinolenic acid-
containing borage oil: possible implication in asthma. Clin Dev Immunol. 2004 Mar;11(1):13-21. [36] Takwale A, et al,
Efficacy and tolerability of borage oil in adults and children with atopic eczema: randomised, double blind, placebo controlled,
parallel group trial. BMJ. 2003 Dec 13;327(7428):1385. [37] Kast RE. Borage oil reduction of rheumatoid arthritis activity may
be mediated by increased cAMP that suppresses tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Int Immunopharmacol. 2001 Nov;1(12):2197-
9. [38] Fukushima M, et al, Investigation of gene expressions related to cholesterol metabolism in rats fed diets enriched in
n-6 or n-3 fatty acid with a cholesterol after long-term feeding using quantitative-competitive RT-PCR analysis. J Nutr Sci
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