Selenium and its health
advantages
advantages
 |  |  |  |
What is selenium? What are the health benefits of selenium?
Selenium is a trace mineral essential to good health [1.2]. Selenium asserts its
health benefits via the production of selenoproteins. Selenium is incorporated
into proteins to make selenoproteins. Selenoproteins are antioxdants to help
prevent cellular damage from free radicals. Free radicals are natural by-products
of oxygen metabolism that may contribute to the development of chronic
diseases such as cancer and heart disease [2,3]. Selenoproteins help regulate
thyroid function and play a role in the immune system [4-7]. Selenium may
provide important health benefits to people whose oxidative stress loads are
high, such as those with inflammatory or infectious diseases like rheumatoid
arthritis or human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome,
or who are at high risk for cancers, particularly prostate cancer. [A2] Therefore,
some people consider selenium as a vitamin offering multiple health benefits.
What are the food sources of selenium?
Plant foods are the major food sources of selenium. The content of selenium in
food depends on the selenium content of the soil where plants are grown or
animals are raised. For example, soils in northern Nebraska and the Dakotas
have very high levels of selenium. People living in those regions generally have
the highest selenium intakes in the United States (U.S.) [8]. In the U.S., food
distribution patterns across the country help prevent people living in
low-selenium geographic areas from having selenium deficiency. Soils in some
parts of China and Russia have very low amounts of selenium. Selenium
deficiency is often reported in those regions because most food in those areas is
grown and eaten locally.
Other foods with selenium include some meats and seafood. Animals that eat
grains or plants that were grown in selenium-rich soil have higher levels of
selenium in their muscle. In the U.S., meats and bread are common sources of
dietary selenium [9,10] Some nuts are also sources of selenium.
Selenium content of foods can vary. For example, Brazil nuts may contain as
much as 544 micrograms of selenium per ounce. They also may contain far less
selenium. It is wise to eat Brazil nuts only occasionally because of their unusually
high intake of selenium. Other common food sources of selenium include tuna,
beef, spaghetti, cod, turkey, chicken, noodles, macaroni, egg, cottage cheese,
oatmeal, rice, bread and walnuts.
What is the recommended dosage for selenium?
Recommendations for selenium are provided in the Dietary Reference Intakes
developed by the Institute of Medicine [12]. The Recommended Dietary
Allowances (RDA) for selenium for healthy adults is 55 ug/day.
When can selenium deficiency occur?
Human selenium deficiency is seen, where soil concentration of selenium is low
[15]. There is evidence that selenium deficiency may contribute to development
of a form of heart disease, hypothyroidism, and a weakened immune system
[16,17].
Selenium deficiency can also make the body more susceptible to illnesses caused
by other nutritional, biochemical or infectious stresses [18].
Three specific diseases frequently associated with selenium deficiency are
Keshan Disease [enlarged heart and poor heart function], Kashin-Beck Disease
[osteoarthropathy] and Myxedematous Endemic Cretinism [mental retardation].
Keshan disease was first described in the early 1930s in China, and is still seen
in large areas of the Chinese countryside with selenium poor soil [18]. Dietary
intake in these areas is less than 19 micrograms per day for men and less than
13 micrograms per day for women, significantly lower than the current RDA for
selenium [12]. Researchers believe that selenium deficient people infected with a
specific virus are most likely to develop Keshan disease [18,19].
Selenium deficiency has also been seen in people who rely on total parenteral
nutrition (TPN) as their sole source of nutrition [20,21]. TPN is a method of
feeding nutrients through an intravenous (IV) line to people whose digestive
systems do not function. Forms of nutrients that do not require digestion are
dissolved in liquid and infused through the IV line. It is important for TPN
solutions to provide selenium in order to prevent a deficiency [22]. Physicians
can monitor the selenium status of individuals receiving TPN to make sure they
are receiving adequate amounts.
Severe gastrointestinal disorders may decrease the absorption of selenium,
resulting in selenium depletion or deficiency [23]. Gastrointestinal problems that
impair selenium absorption usually affect absorption of other nutrients as well,
and require routine monitoring of nutritional status so that appropriate medical
and nutritional treatment can be provided.
Who may need supplemental selenium?
In the U.S., most cases of selenium depletion or deficiency are associated with
severe gastrointestinal problems, such as Crohn's disease, or with surgical
removal of part of the stomach. These and other gastrointestinal disorders can
impair selenium absorption [24-26]. People with acute severe illness who
develop inflammation and widespread infection often have decreased levels of
selenium in their blood [27]. Physicians will evaluate individuals who have
gastrointestinal disease or severe infection for depleted blood levels of selenium
to determine the need for supplementation.
People with iodine deficiency may also benefit from selenium supplementation.
Iodine deficiency is rare in the U.S., but is still common in developing countries
where access to iodine is limited [28]. Researchers believe that selenium
deficiency may worsen the effects of iodine deficiency on thyroid function, and
that adequate selenium nutritional status may help protect against some of the
neurological effects of iodine deficiency [6,7]. Researchers involved in the
Supplementation en Vitamines et Mineraux AntioXydants (SU.VI.MAX) study in
France, which was designed to assess the effect of vitamin and mineral
supplements on chronic disease risk, evaluated the relationship between goiter
and selenium in a subset of this research population. Their findings suggest that
selenium supplements may be protective against goiter, which refers to
enlargement of the thyroid gland [29].
As noted above, selenium supplementation during TPN administration is now
routine [21,22]. While specific medical problems such as those described above
indicate a need for selenium supplementation, evidence is lacking for
recommending selenium supplements for healthy children and adults.
Selenium supplements
Selenium occurs in staple foods such as corn, wheat, and soybean as
selenomethionine, the organic selenium analogue of the amino acid methionine
[30,31]. Selenomethionine can be incorporated into body proteins in place of
methionine, and serves as a vehicle for selenium storage in organs and tissues.
Selenium supplements may also contain sodium selenite and sodium selenate,
two inorganic forms of selenium. Selenomethionine is generally considered to be
the best absorbed and utilized form of selenium.
Selenium is also available in 'high selenium yeasts', which may contain as much
as 1,000 to 2,000 micrograms of selenium per gram [30]. Most of the selenium
in these yeasts is in the form of selenomethionine. This form of selenium was
used in the large scale cancer prevention trial in 1983, which demonstrated that
taking a daily supplement [dosage: 200 micrograms of selenium per day] could
lower the risk of developing prostate, lung, and colorectal cancer [32]. However,
some yeasts may contain inorganic forms of selenium, which are not utilized as
well as selenomethionine.
A study conducted in 1995 suggested that the organic forms of selenium
increased blood selenium concentration to a greater extent than inorganic forms.
However, it did not significantly improve the activity of the selenium-dependent
enzyme, glutathione peroxidase [33].
Selenium and Cancer
Observational studies indicate that death from cancer, including lung, colorectal,
and prostate cancers, is lower among people with higher blood levels or intake
of selenium [34-40]. In addition, the incidence of nonmelanoma skin cancer is
significantly higher in areas of the United States with low soil selenium content
[37]. The effect of selenium supplementation on the recurrence of different types
of skin cancers was studied in seven dermatology clinics in the U.S. from 1983
through the early 1990s. Taking a daily supplement with dosage of 200 ug of
selenium did not affect recurrence of skin cancer, but significantly reduced the
occurrence and death from total cancers. The incidence of prostate cancer,
colorectal cancer, and lung cancer was notably lower in the group given selenium
supplements [41].
Research suggests that selenium affects cancer risk in two ways. As an
anti-oxidant, selenium can help protect the body from damaging effects of free
radicals. Selenium may also prevent or slow tumor growth. Certain breakdown
products of selenium are believed to prevent tumor growth by enhancing
immune cell activity and suppressing development of blood vessels to the tumor
[42].
Rayman MP from University of Surrey, Guildford, UK, suggested that selenium is
an unusual trace element in having its own codon in mRNA that specifies its
insertion into selenoproteins as selenocysteine (SeCys), by means of a
mechanism requiring a large SeCys-insertion complex. This exacting insertion
machinery for selenoprotein production has implications for the selenium
requirements for cancer prevention. If selenium may protect against cancer, an
adequate intake of selenium is desirable. [A1]
However, not all studies have shown a relationship between selenium status
and cancer. In 1982, over 60,000 participants of the Nurse's Health Study with
no history of cancer submitted toenail clippings for selenium analysis. Toenails
are thought to reflect selenium status over the previous year. After three and a
half years of data collection, researchers compared toenail selenium levels of
nurses with and without cancer. Those nurses with higher levels of selenium in
their toenails did not have a reduced risk of cancer [43]. Current primary and
secondary prevention trials of selenium are underway in the USA, including the
Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT) relating to prostate
cancer, [A1]
Selenium and heart disease
Some population surveys have suggested an association between lower
antioxidant intake and a greater incidence of heart disease [46]. Evidence also
suggests that oxidative stress from free radicals, which are natural by-products
of oxygen metabolism, may promote heart disease [47-49]. For example, it is the
oxidized form of low-density lipoproteins (LDL, often called "bad" cholesterol)
that promotes plaque build-up in coronary arteries [48]. Selenium is one of a
group of antioxidants that may help limit the oxidation of LDL cholesterol and
thereby help to prevent coronary artery disease [47-49]..
Selenium and arthritis
Surveys indicate that individuals with rheumatoid arthritis, a chronic disease that
causes pain, stiffness, swelling, and loss of function in joints, have reduced
selenium levels in their blood [50-51]. In addition, some individuals with arthritis
have a low selenium intake [52].
The body's immune system naturally makes free radicals that can help destroy
invading organisms and damaged tissue, but that can also harm healthy tissue
[53]. Selenium, as an antioxidant, may help to relieve symptoms of arthritis by
controlling levels of free radicals [54].
Selenium and HIV
HIV/AIDS malabsorption can deplete levels of many nutrients, including selenium.
Selenium deficiency is associated with decreased immune cell counts, increased
disease progression, and high risk of death in the HIV/AIDS population [55,56].
HIV/AIDS gradually destroys the immune system, and oxidative stress may
contribute to further damage of immune cells. Antioxidant nutrients such as
selenium help protect cells from oxidative stress, thus potentially slowing
progression of the disease [57]. Selenium also may be needed for the replication
of the HIV virus, which could further deplete levels of selenium [58].
An examination of 125 HIV-positive men and women linked selenium deficiency
with a higher rate of death from HIV [59]. In a small study of 24 children with HIV
who were observed for five years, those with low selenium levels died at a
younger age, which may indicate faster disease progression [60]. Results of
research studies have led experts to suggest that selenium status may be a
significant predictor of survival for those infected with HIV [61].
What are the side effects of selenium? Is high dose of selenium poisoning?
Within the recommended daily allowance, selenium appears to be safe.
However, high blood levels of selenium (greater than 100 ug/dL) can lead to a
side effect called selenosis [62]. Symptoms of selenosis include gastrointestinal
upsets, hair loss, white blotchy nails, garlic breath odor, fatigue, irritability, and
mild nerve damage [2].
Selenium toxicity is rare. The few reported cases have been associated with
industrial accidents and a manufacturing error that led to an excessively high
dose of selenium in a supplement [63,64]. The Institute of Medicine of the
National Academy of Sciences has set a tolerable upper intake level (UL) for
selenium at 400 micrograms per day for adults to prevent the risk of developing
the side effect, i.e. selenosis [12].
Selenium is a trace mineral essential to good health [1.2]. Selenium asserts its
health benefits via the production of selenoproteins. Selenium is incorporated
into proteins to make selenoproteins. Selenoproteins are antioxdants to help
prevent cellular damage from free radicals. Free radicals are natural by-products
of oxygen metabolism that may contribute to the development of chronic
diseases such as cancer and heart disease [2,3]. Selenoproteins help regulate
thyroid function and play a role in the immune system [4-7]. Selenium may
provide important health benefits to people whose oxidative stress loads are
high, such as those with inflammatory or infectious diseases like rheumatoid
arthritis or human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome,
or who are at high risk for cancers, particularly prostate cancer. [A2] Therefore,
some people consider selenium as a vitamin offering multiple health benefits.
What are the food sources of selenium?
Plant foods are the major food sources of selenium. The content of selenium in
food depends on the selenium content of the soil where plants are grown or
animals are raised. For example, soils in northern Nebraska and the Dakotas
have very high levels of selenium. People living in those regions generally have
the highest selenium intakes in the United States (U.S.) [8]. In the U.S., food
distribution patterns across the country help prevent people living in
low-selenium geographic areas from having selenium deficiency. Soils in some
parts of China and Russia have very low amounts of selenium. Selenium
deficiency is often reported in those regions because most food in those areas is
grown and eaten locally.
Other foods with selenium include some meats and seafood. Animals that eat
grains or plants that were grown in selenium-rich soil have higher levels of
selenium in their muscle. In the U.S., meats and bread are common sources of
dietary selenium [9,10] Some nuts are also sources of selenium.
Selenium content of foods can vary. For example, Brazil nuts may contain as
much as 544 micrograms of selenium per ounce. They also may contain far less
selenium. It is wise to eat Brazil nuts only occasionally because of their unusually
high intake of selenium. Other common food sources of selenium include tuna,
beef, spaghetti, cod, turkey, chicken, noodles, macaroni, egg, cottage cheese,
oatmeal, rice, bread and walnuts.
What is the recommended dosage for selenium?
Recommendations for selenium are provided in the Dietary Reference Intakes
developed by the Institute of Medicine [12]. The Recommended Dietary
Allowances (RDA) for selenium for healthy adults is 55 ug/day.
When can selenium deficiency occur?
Human selenium deficiency is seen, where soil concentration of selenium is low
[15]. There is evidence that selenium deficiency may contribute to development
of a form of heart disease, hypothyroidism, and a weakened immune system
[16,17].
Selenium deficiency can also make the body more susceptible to illnesses caused
by other nutritional, biochemical or infectious stresses [18].
Three specific diseases frequently associated with selenium deficiency are
Keshan Disease [enlarged heart and poor heart function], Kashin-Beck Disease
[osteoarthropathy] and Myxedematous Endemic Cretinism [mental retardation].
Keshan disease was first described in the early 1930s in China, and is still seen
in large areas of the Chinese countryside with selenium poor soil [18]. Dietary
intake in these areas is less than 19 micrograms per day for men and less than
13 micrograms per day for women, significantly lower than the current RDA for
selenium [12]. Researchers believe that selenium deficient people infected with a
specific virus are most likely to develop Keshan disease [18,19].
Selenium deficiency has also been seen in people who rely on total parenteral
nutrition (TPN) as their sole source of nutrition [20,21]. TPN is a method of
feeding nutrients through an intravenous (IV) line to people whose digestive
systems do not function. Forms of nutrients that do not require digestion are
dissolved in liquid and infused through the IV line. It is important for TPN
solutions to provide selenium in order to prevent a deficiency [22]. Physicians
can monitor the selenium status of individuals receiving TPN to make sure they
are receiving adequate amounts.
Severe gastrointestinal disorders may decrease the absorption of selenium,
resulting in selenium depletion or deficiency [23]. Gastrointestinal problems that
impair selenium absorption usually affect absorption of other nutrients as well,
and require routine monitoring of nutritional status so that appropriate medical
and nutritional treatment can be provided.
Who may need supplemental selenium?
In the U.S., most cases of selenium depletion or deficiency are associated with
severe gastrointestinal problems, such as Crohn's disease, or with surgical
removal of part of the stomach. These and other gastrointestinal disorders can
impair selenium absorption [24-26]. People with acute severe illness who
develop inflammation and widespread infection often have decreased levels of
selenium in their blood [27]. Physicians will evaluate individuals who have
gastrointestinal disease or severe infection for depleted blood levels of selenium
to determine the need for supplementation.
People with iodine deficiency may also benefit from selenium supplementation.
Iodine deficiency is rare in the U.S., but is still common in developing countries
where access to iodine is limited [28]. Researchers believe that selenium
deficiency may worsen the effects of iodine deficiency on thyroid function, and
that adequate selenium nutritional status may help protect against some of the
neurological effects of iodine deficiency [6,7]. Researchers involved in the
Supplementation en Vitamines et Mineraux AntioXydants (SU.VI.MAX) study in
France, which was designed to assess the effect of vitamin and mineral
supplements on chronic disease risk, evaluated the relationship between goiter
and selenium in a subset of this research population. Their findings suggest that
selenium supplements may be protective against goiter, which refers to
enlargement of the thyroid gland [29].
As noted above, selenium supplementation during TPN administration is now
routine [21,22]. While specific medical problems such as those described above
indicate a need for selenium supplementation, evidence is lacking for
recommending selenium supplements for healthy children and adults.
Selenium supplements
Selenium occurs in staple foods such as corn, wheat, and soybean as
selenomethionine, the organic selenium analogue of the amino acid methionine
[30,31]. Selenomethionine can be incorporated into body proteins in place of
methionine, and serves as a vehicle for selenium storage in organs and tissues.
Selenium supplements may also contain sodium selenite and sodium selenate,
two inorganic forms of selenium. Selenomethionine is generally considered to be
the best absorbed and utilized form of selenium.
Selenium is also available in 'high selenium yeasts', which may contain as much
as 1,000 to 2,000 micrograms of selenium per gram [30]. Most of the selenium
in these yeasts is in the form of selenomethionine. This form of selenium was
used in the large scale cancer prevention trial in 1983, which demonstrated that
taking a daily supplement [dosage: 200 micrograms of selenium per day] could
lower the risk of developing prostate, lung, and colorectal cancer [32]. However,
some yeasts may contain inorganic forms of selenium, which are not utilized as
well as selenomethionine.
A study conducted in 1995 suggested that the organic forms of selenium
increased blood selenium concentration to a greater extent than inorganic forms.
However, it did not significantly improve the activity of the selenium-dependent
enzyme, glutathione peroxidase [33].
Selenium and Cancer
Observational studies indicate that death from cancer, including lung, colorectal,
and prostate cancers, is lower among people with higher blood levels or intake
of selenium [34-40]. In addition, the incidence of nonmelanoma skin cancer is
significantly higher in areas of the United States with low soil selenium content
[37]. The effect of selenium supplementation on the recurrence of different types
of skin cancers was studied in seven dermatology clinics in the U.S. from 1983
through the early 1990s. Taking a daily supplement with dosage of 200 ug of
selenium did not affect recurrence of skin cancer, but significantly reduced the
occurrence and death from total cancers. The incidence of prostate cancer,
colorectal cancer, and lung cancer was notably lower in the group given selenium
supplements [41].
Research suggests that selenium affects cancer risk in two ways. As an
anti-oxidant, selenium can help protect the body from damaging effects of free
radicals. Selenium may also prevent or slow tumor growth. Certain breakdown
products of selenium are believed to prevent tumor growth by enhancing
immune cell activity and suppressing development of blood vessels to the tumor
[42].
Rayman MP from University of Surrey, Guildford, UK, suggested that selenium is
an unusual trace element in having its own codon in mRNA that specifies its
insertion into selenoproteins as selenocysteine (SeCys), by means of a
mechanism requiring a large SeCys-insertion complex. This exacting insertion
machinery for selenoprotein production has implications for the selenium
requirements for cancer prevention. If selenium may protect against cancer, an
adequate intake of selenium is desirable. [A1]
However, not all studies have shown a relationship between selenium status
and cancer. In 1982, over 60,000 participants of the Nurse's Health Study with
no history of cancer submitted toenail clippings for selenium analysis. Toenails
are thought to reflect selenium status over the previous year. After three and a
half years of data collection, researchers compared toenail selenium levels of
nurses with and without cancer. Those nurses with higher levels of selenium in
their toenails did not have a reduced risk of cancer [43]. Current primary and
secondary prevention trials of selenium are underway in the USA, including the
Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT) relating to prostate
cancer, [A1]
Selenium and heart disease
Some population surveys have suggested an association between lower
antioxidant intake and a greater incidence of heart disease [46]. Evidence also
suggests that oxidative stress from free radicals, which are natural by-products
of oxygen metabolism, may promote heart disease [47-49]. For example, it is the
oxidized form of low-density lipoproteins (LDL, often called "bad" cholesterol)
that promotes plaque build-up in coronary arteries [48]. Selenium is one of a
group of antioxidants that may help limit the oxidation of LDL cholesterol and
thereby help to prevent coronary artery disease [47-49]..
Selenium and arthritis
Surveys indicate that individuals with rheumatoid arthritis, a chronic disease that
causes pain, stiffness, swelling, and loss of function in joints, have reduced
selenium levels in their blood [50-51]. In addition, some individuals with arthritis
have a low selenium intake [52].
The body's immune system naturally makes free radicals that can help destroy
invading organisms and damaged tissue, but that can also harm healthy tissue
[53]. Selenium, as an antioxidant, may help to relieve symptoms of arthritis by
controlling levels of free radicals [54].
Selenium and HIV
HIV/AIDS malabsorption can deplete levels of many nutrients, including selenium.
Selenium deficiency is associated with decreased immune cell counts, increased
disease progression, and high risk of death in the HIV/AIDS population [55,56].
HIV/AIDS gradually destroys the immune system, and oxidative stress may
contribute to further damage of immune cells. Antioxidant nutrients such as
selenium help protect cells from oxidative stress, thus potentially slowing
progression of the disease [57]. Selenium also may be needed for the replication
of the HIV virus, which could further deplete levels of selenium [58].
An examination of 125 HIV-positive men and women linked selenium deficiency
with a higher rate of death from HIV [59]. In a small study of 24 children with HIV
who were observed for five years, those with low selenium levels died at a
younger age, which may indicate faster disease progression [60]. Results of
research studies have led experts to suggest that selenium status may be a
significant predictor of survival for those infected with HIV [61].
What are the side effects of selenium? Is high dose of selenium poisoning?
Within the recommended daily allowance, selenium appears to be safe.
However, high blood levels of selenium (greater than 100 ug/dL) can lead to a
side effect called selenosis [62]. Symptoms of selenosis include gastrointestinal
upsets, hair loss, white blotchy nails, garlic breath odor, fatigue, irritability, and
mild nerve damage [2].
Selenium toxicity is rare. The few reported cases have been associated with
industrial accidents and a manufacturing error that led to an excessively high
dose of selenium in a supplement [63,64]. The Institute of Medicine of the
National Academy of Sciences has set a tolerable upper intake level (UL) for
selenium at 400 micrograms per day for adults to prevent the risk of developing
the side effect, i.e. selenosis [12].
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AntiXydants Study. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 1998;68:3-20. 45 Klein EA, Thompson IM, Lippman SM, Goodman PJ, Albanes D, Taylor PR, Coltman C.
SELECT: the next prostate cancer prevention trial. Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial. Journal of Urology 2001;166(4):1311-5. 46
Gey KF. Vitamins E plus C and interacting conutrients required for optimal health. A critical and constructive review of epidemiology and
supplementation data regarding cardiovascular disease and cancer. Biofactors 1998;7:113-74. 47 Ozer NK, Boscoboinik D, Azzi A. New roles of
low density lipoproteins and vitamin E in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Biochem Mol Biol Int 1995;35:117-24. 48 Lapenna D, de Gioia S,
Ciofani G, Mezzetti A, Ucchino S, Calafiore AM, Napolitano AM, Di Ilio C, Cuccurulo F. Glutathione-related antioxidant defenses in human
atherosclerotic plaques. Circulation 1998;97:1930-4. 49 Neve J. Selenium as a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. J Cardiovasc Risk
1996;3:42-7. 50 Kose K, Dogan P, Kardas Y, Saraymen R. Plasma selenium levels in rheumatoid arthritis. Biol Trace Elem Res 1996;53:51-6. 51
Heliovaara M, Knekt P, Aho K, Aaran RK, Alfthan G, Aromaa A. Serum antioxidants and risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 1994;53:51-3.
52 Stone J, Doube A, Dudson D, Wallace J. Inadequate calcium, folic acid, vitamin E, zinc, and selenium intake in rheumatoid arthritis patients:
Results of a dietary survey. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1997;27:180-5. 53 Grimble RF. Nutritional antioxidants and the modulation of inflammation:
Theory and practice. New Horizons 1994;2:175-85. 54 Aaseth J, Haugen M, Forre O. Rheumatoid arthritis and metal compounds- perspectives on
the role of oxygen radical detoxification. Analyst 1998;123:3- 6. 55 Look MP, Rockstroh JK, Rao GS, Kreuzer KA, Spengler U, Sauerbruch T. Serum
selenium versus lymphocyte subsets and markers of disease progression and inflammatory response in human immunodeficiency virus-1
infection. Biol Trace Elem Res 1997;56(1):31-41. 56 Singhal N and Austin J. A clinical review of micronutrients in HIV infection. J Int Assoc
Physicians AIDS Care 2002;1:63-75. 57 Romero-Alvira D and Roche E. The keys of oxidative stress in acquired immune deficiency syndrome
apoptosis. Medical Hypotheses 1998;51(2):169-73. 58 Patrick L. Nutrients and HIV; Part One - Beta carotene and selenium. Altern Med Rev
1999;4:403-13. 59 Baum MK, Shor-Posner G, Lai S, Zhang G, Lai H, Fletcher MA, Sauberlich H, Page JB. High risk of HIV-related mortality is
associated with selenium deficiency. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1997;15:370-4. 60 Campa A, Shor-Posner G, Indacoche F,
Zhang G, Lai H, Asthana D, Scott GB, Baum MK. Mortality risk in selenium-deficient HIV-positive children. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum
Retrovirol 1999;15:508-13. 61 Baum MK and Shor-Posner G. Micronutrient status in relationship to mortality in HIV-1 disease. Nutr Rev
1998;56:S135-9. 62 Koller LD and Exon JH. The two faces of selenium-deficiency and toxicity are similar in animals and man. Can J Vet Res
1986;50:297-306. 63 Hathcock J. Vitamins and minerals: Efficacy and safety. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;66:427-37. 64 Raisbeck MF, Dahl ER, Sanchez
DA, Belden EL, O'Toole D. Naturally occurring selenosis in Wyoming. J Vet Diagn Invest 1993;5:84-7. 65 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee,
Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). HG Bulletin No. 232, 2000. 66 Center for Nutrition Policy and
Promotion, United Stated Department of Agriculture. Food Guide Pyramid, 1992 (slightly revised 1996). [A1] Selenium in cancer prevention: a
review of the evidence and mechanism of action. Proc Nutr Soc. 2005 Nov;64(4):527-42. [A2] Ryan-Harshman M and Aldoori W The relevance of
selenium to immunity, cancer, and infectious/inflammatory diseases. Can J Diet Pract Res. 2005 Summer;66(2):98-102.
Source Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Selenium, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Online Publication January 2006.
Walnut is a good source of selenium.
Selenium may benefit people at cancer risk; some research suggested.
McAdam PA, Patterson KY, Holden JM, Stampfer MJ, Morris JS, Willett WC. Selenium in diet, blood, and toenails in relation to human health in a
seleniferous area. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;53:1288-94. 9 Pennington JA and Schoen SA. Contributions of food groups to estimated intakes of
nutritional elements: Results from the FDA total diet studies, 1982-91. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 1996;66:342-9. 10 Pennington JA and Young BE.
Total diet study nutritional elements. J Am Diet Assoc 1991;91:179-83. 11 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2003.
USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 16. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page 12 Institute of Medicine, Food and
Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes: Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2000. 13
Bialostosky K, Wright JD, Kennedy-Stephenson J, McDowell M, Johnson CL. Dietary intake of macronutrients, micronutrients and other dietary
constituents: United States 1988-94. Vital Heath Stat. 11(245) ed: National Center for Health Statistics, 2002. 14 Zhou BF, Stamler J, Dennis B,
Moag-Stahlberg A, Okuda N, Robertson C, Zhao L, Chan Q, Elliott P for the INTERMAP Research Group. Nutrient intakes of middle-aged men and
women in China, Japan, United Kingdom, and United States in the alte 1990s: The INTERMAP Study. J of Human Hypertension. 2003;17:623-30. 15
Ellis DR and Salt DE. Plants, selenium and human health. Curr Opin Plant Biol 2003;6:273-9. 16 Combs GF. Food system-based approaches to
improving micronutrient nutrition: the case for selenium. Biofactors 2000;12:39-43. 17 Zimmerman MB and Kohrle J. The impact of iron and
selenium deficiencies on iodine and thyroid metabolism: biochemistry and relevance to public health. Thyroid 2002;12:867-78. 18 Beck MA,
Levander O, Handy J. Selenium deficiency and viral infection. J of Nutr 2003;133:1463S-67S. 19 Levander OA and Beck MA. Interacting nutritional
and infectious etiologies of Keshan disease. Insights from coxsackie virus B-induced myocarditis in mice deficient in selenium or vitamin E. Biol
Trace Elem Res 1997;56:5-21. 20 Levander OA. Scientific rationale for the 1989 recommended dietary allowance for selenium. J Am Diet Assoc
1991;91:1572-6. 21 Gramm HJ, Kopf A, Bratter P. The necessity of selenium substitution in total parenteral nutrition and artificial alimentation. J
Trace Elem Med Biol 1995;9:1-12. 22 Abrams CK, Siram SM, Galsim C, Johnson-Hamilton H, Munford FL, Mezghebe H. Selenium deficiency in
long-term total parenteral nutrition. Nutr Clin Pract 1992;7:175-8. 23 Rannem T, Ladefoged K, Hylander E, Hegnhoj J, Staun M. Selenium depletion
in patients with gastrointestinal diseases: Are there any predictive factors? Scand J Gastroenterol 1998;33:1057-61. 24 Kuroki F, Matsumoto T,
Lida M. Selenium is depleted in Crohn's disease on enteral nutrition. Digestive Diseases 2003;21:266-70. 25 Rannem T, Ladefoged K, Hylander E,
Hegnhoj J, Jarnum S. Selenium status in patients with Crohn's disease. Am J Clin Nutr 1992;56:933-7. 26 Bjerre B, von Schenck H, Sorbo B.
Hyposelaemia: Patients with gastrointestinal diseases are at risk. J Intern Med 1989;225:85-8. 27 Gartner R, Albrich W, Angstwurm MW. The
effect of a selenium supplementation on the outcome of patients with severe systemic inflammation, burn, and trauma. BioFactors 14 2001;
199-204. 28 Berdanier, CD. Advanced Nutrition: Micronutrients. CRC Press 1998; 208-11. 29 Derumeaux H, Valeix P, Castetbon K, Bensimon M,
Boutron-Ruault MC, Arnaud J, Hercberg S. Association of selenium with thyroid volume and echostructure in 35- to 60-year-old French adults. Eur
J Endocrinol 2003;148(3):309-15. 30 Schrauzer GN. Commentary: Nutrition selenium supplements: Product types, quality, and safety. J Am
College of Nutr 2001;20:1-4. 31 Schrauzer GN. The nutritional significance, metabolism and toxicology of selenomethionine. Adv Food Nutr Res
2003:47:73-112. 32 Clark LC, Combs Jr GF, Turnbull BW, Slate EH, Chalker D, Chow J, Davis LS, Glover RA, Graham GF, Gross EG, Krongrad A,
Lesher JL, Park HK, Sanders BB, Smith CL, Taylor JR. Effects of selenium supplementation for cancer prevention in patients with carcinoma of
the skin. A randomized controlled trial. J Am Med Assoc 1996;276:1957-63. 33 Neve J. Human selenium supplementation as assessed by changes
in blood selenium concentration and glutathione peroxidase activity. J Trace Elem Med Biol 1995;9:65-73. 34 Russo MW, Murray SC, Wurzelmann
JI, Woosley JT, Sandler RS. Plasma selenium levels and the risk of colorectal adenomas. Nutr Cancer 1997;28:125-9. 35 Patterson BH and
Levander OA. Naturally occurring selenium compounds in cancer chemoprevention trials: A workshop summary. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers
Prev 1997;6:63-9. 36 Knekt P, Marniemi J, Teppo L, Heliovaara M, Aromaa A. Is low selenium status a risk factor for lung cancer? Am J
Epidemiol 1998;148:975-82. 37 Fleet JC. Dietary selenium repletion may reduce cancer incidence in people at high risk who live in areas with low
soil selenium. Nutr Rev 1997;55:277-9. 38 Shamberger RJ. The genotoxicity of selenium. Mutat Res 1985;154:29-48. 39 Young KL and Lee PN.
Intervention studies on cancer. Eur J Cancer Prev 1999;8:91-103. 40 Burguera JL, Burguera M, Gallignani M, Alarcon OM, Burgueera JA. Blood
serum selenium in the province of Merida, Venezuela, related to sex, cancer incidence and soil selenium content. J Trace Elem Electrolytes
Health Dis 1990;4:73-7. 41 Combs GF, Jr., Clark LC, Turnbull BW. Reduction of cancer risk with an oral supplement of selenium. Biomed Environ
Sci 1997;10:227-34. 42 Combs GF, Clark LC, Turnbull BW. An analysis of cancer prevention by selenium. BioFactors 14 2001; 153-9. 43 Garland
M, Morris JS, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Spate VL, Baskett CK, Rosner B, Speier FE, Willett WC, Hunter DJ. Prospective study of toenail selenium
levels and cancer among women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87:497- 505. 44 Hercberg S, Galan P, Preziosi P, Roussel AM, Arnaud J, Richard MJ,
Malvy D, Paul-Dauphin A, Briancon S, Favier A. Background and rationale behind the SU.VI.MAX Study, a prevention trial using nutritional doses of
a combination of antioxidant vitamins and minerals to reduce cardiovascular diseases and cancers. Supplementation en VItamines et Mineraux
AntiXydants Study. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 1998;68:3-20. 45 Klein EA, Thompson IM, Lippman SM, Goodman PJ, Albanes D, Taylor PR, Coltman C.
SELECT: the next prostate cancer prevention trial. Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial. Journal of Urology 2001;166(4):1311-5. 46
Gey KF. Vitamins E plus C and interacting conutrients required for optimal health. A critical and constructive review of epidemiology and
supplementation data regarding cardiovascular disease and cancer. Biofactors 1998;7:113-74. 47 Ozer NK, Boscoboinik D, Azzi A. New roles of
low density lipoproteins and vitamin E in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Biochem Mol Biol Int 1995;35:117-24. 48 Lapenna D, de Gioia S,
Ciofani G, Mezzetti A, Ucchino S, Calafiore AM, Napolitano AM, Di Ilio C, Cuccurulo F. Glutathione-related antioxidant defenses in human
atherosclerotic plaques. Circulation 1998;97:1930-4. 49 Neve J. Selenium as a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. J Cardiovasc Risk
1996;3:42-7. 50 Kose K, Dogan P, Kardas Y, Saraymen R. Plasma selenium levels in rheumatoid arthritis. Biol Trace Elem Res 1996;53:51-6. 51
Heliovaara M, Knekt P, Aho K, Aaran RK, Alfthan G, Aromaa A. Serum antioxidants and risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 1994;53:51-3.
52 Stone J, Doube A, Dudson D, Wallace J. Inadequate calcium, folic acid, vitamin E, zinc, and selenium intake in rheumatoid arthritis patients:
Results of a dietary survey. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1997;27:180-5. 53 Grimble RF. Nutritional antioxidants and the modulation of inflammation:
Theory and practice. New Horizons 1994;2:175-85. 54 Aaseth J, Haugen M, Forre O. Rheumatoid arthritis and metal compounds- perspectives on
the role of oxygen radical detoxification. Analyst 1998;123:3- 6. 55 Look MP, Rockstroh JK, Rao GS, Kreuzer KA, Spengler U, Sauerbruch T. Serum
selenium versus lymphocyte subsets and markers of disease progression and inflammatory response in human immunodeficiency virus-1
infection. Biol Trace Elem Res 1997;56(1):31-41. 56 Singhal N and Austin J. A clinical review of micronutrients in HIV infection. J Int Assoc
Physicians AIDS Care 2002;1:63-75. 57 Romero-Alvira D and Roche E. The keys of oxidative stress in acquired immune deficiency syndrome
apoptosis. Medical Hypotheses 1998;51(2):169-73. 58 Patrick L. Nutrients and HIV; Part One - Beta carotene and selenium. Altern Med Rev
1999;4:403-13. 59 Baum MK, Shor-Posner G, Lai S, Zhang G, Lai H, Fletcher MA, Sauberlich H, Page JB. High risk of HIV-related mortality is
associated with selenium deficiency. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1997;15:370-4. 60 Campa A, Shor-Posner G, Indacoche F,
Zhang G, Lai H, Asthana D, Scott GB, Baum MK. Mortality risk in selenium-deficient HIV-positive children. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum
Retrovirol 1999;15:508-13. 61 Baum MK and Shor-Posner G. Micronutrient status in relationship to mortality in HIV-1 disease. Nutr Rev
1998;56:S135-9. 62 Koller LD and Exon JH. The two faces of selenium-deficiency and toxicity are similar in animals and man. Can J Vet Res
1986;50:297-306. 63 Hathcock J. Vitamins and minerals: Efficacy and safety. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;66:427-37. 64 Raisbeck MF, Dahl ER, Sanchez
DA, Belden EL, O'Toole D. Naturally occurring selenosis in Wyoming. J Vet Diagn Invest 1993;5:84-7. 65 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee,
Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). HG Bulletin No. 232, 2000. 66 Center for Nutrition Policy and
Promotion, United Stated Department of Agriculture. Food Guide Pyramid, 1992 (slightly revised 1996). [A1] Selenium in cancer prevention: a
review of the evidence and mechanism of action. Proc Nutr Soc. 2005 Nov;64(4):527-42. [A2] Ryan-Harshman M and Aldoori W The relevance of
selenium to immunity, cancer, and infectious/inflammatory diseases. Can J Diet Pract Res. 2005 Summer;66(2):98-102.
Source Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Selenium, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Online Publication January 2006.
Walnut is a good source of selenium.
Selenium may benefit people at cancer risk; some research suggested.
| The National Cancer Institute has halted its $114 million study of whether vitamin E and selenium can prevent prostate cancer. Earlier smaller studies had suggested the nutrients might help, but instead they've become the latest failures in a quest to find cancer-preventing dietary supplements. These two supplements were believed to help prevent prostate cancer. Both are antioxidants -- compounds that interfere with chemical reactions that can damage cells and DNA. data showed no benefit for the data showed no benefit for the treatment. In the study, the men received either vitamin E (400 milligrams) and selenium (200 micrograms), , vitamin E and placebo, vitamin E and placebo, selenium and placebo, or placebos alone. placebos alone. |
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Supplements
Acetyl-L Carnitine
Acidophilus
Bladderwrack
Bilberry
Chromium
CLA
Cod Liver Oil
Coenzyme Q
Colostrum
Dandelion
EGCG
Echinacea
Eleuthero
Ellagic Acid
Eve. Primrose Oil
Fish Oil
Flaxseed
Garlic
Ginger
Ginseng
Ginkgo Biloba
Glucosamine
Gotu Kola
Guar Gum
Hyaluronic acid
Lecithin
Lycopene
Milk Thistle
Nattokinase
Passion Flower
Probiotics
Policosanol /
Polycosanol
Pycnogenol
Reishi / Lingzhi
Resveratrol
Rhodiola
Royal Jelly
Stevia
Whey
Xylitol
THIS WEBSITE TALKS ABOUT THE SIDE EFFECTS AND THE POTENTIAL HEALTH BENEFITS OF HERBS, SUPPLEMENTS,
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ARTICLES IN THIS WEB SITE IS FOR YOUR REFERENCE ONLY. IF YOU HAVE ANY QUESTION, YOU SHOULD CONSULT WITH YOUR
DOCTOR IMMEDIATELY. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 2008. DO NOT COPY NOR TRANSFER ARTICLES TO OTHER WEBSITES NOR OTHER
FORMS OF PUBLICATIONS. Privacy Policy. ARTICLE INDEX
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